
Class cJ 6 ^f3 

Lj "^ c^ 
Book n /jc l^ 

Copyright W 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 






M Published by 

N 
M 

M 
H 
M 



The Chemical Publishing Co. | 

Easton, Penna. m 

I8« Publishers of Scientific Books H 

M Engineering Chemistry Portland Cement g 

g Agricultural Chemistry Qualitative Analysis ^ 

g Household Chemistry Chemists' Pocket Manual g 

lei Metallurgy, Etc. g 
KX2iXIXa^II3J^IXXSSXI-XXIXXXXI-XX3Ed^^X«-X3^X'XXX-IXX-XXI2S 



Fertility 



anc 



Fertilizer Hints 

By 
JAMES EDWARD HALLIGAN 

CHEMIST IN CHARGE. LOUISIANA STATE EXPERIMENT STATION 



EASTON, PA. 

THE CHEMICAL PUBLISHING CO. 

1911 



LONDON, ENGLAND: 
WILLIAMS & NORGATE 

14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W. C. 






Copyright, 1911, hv Edward Hart. 



Vv 



©CI.A80 5i)0 



PREFACE. 

Tlie little book is an abridged edition of tlie autbor"s. Soil 
Fertility and Fertilizers. The symbol* has been nsed throui^hont 
the text to refer to notes, in the back of the book, that state the 
topics of subject matter that have necessarily been omitted in 
this work. 

This book has been written to be within the reach of the 
farmer, student, or any other person interested in the subject, 
"Fertilizers," and should more complete data be desired the 
unabridged edition. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers should be con- 
sulted. 

The writer is indebted to the Louisiana Experiment Station, 
for illustrations. 

T. E. HALLIGAN. 
Baton Rouoe. La. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I— Chemical Elements Needed by Plants 

and the Composition of Plants i-i 2 

The Fifteen Elements. How Plants Feed. The Food 
of the Plant. Composition of Plants. Amounts of 
Water Used by Plants. Water in Young and Mature 
Plants. Dry Matter of Plants. Composition of the 
Dry Matter of Plants. Acids and Bases. Salts. Vari- 
ation of Ash. Occurrence of Mineral Elements in 
Plants. Distribution of Ash in Plants. Ash of Young 
and Mature Plants. 

CHAPTER II— The Fertility of the Soil 13-24 

Composition of Soils. Factors Influencing Soil Fer- 
tility. The Plant F'ood Supply. Plant Food Removed 
by Some Crops. Plant Food not Available. The Es- 
sential Elements. One Element Cannot Replace An- 
other. Physical Condition of the Soil. Temperature. 
Mechanical Composition. Surface Area of Soil Grains. 
Lumpy Soil. Cracking of Soils. Puddling of Soils. 
Freezing and Thawing. Plants are Benefited by Open 
Soils. Plants Must Have Room. Plants Require 
Oxygen. Drainage. Capillary Water. The Biological 
Condition of the Soil. The Number of Bacteria in the 
Soil. Nitrification. Denitrification. Organisms that 
Gather Nitrogen. Inoculation of the Soil. 

CHAPTP:R III— Maintaining Soil Fertility 25-34 

Erosion and Ways to Check It. Loss of Fertility by- 
Drainage. Fallowing. Loss of Nitrogen by Continu- 
ous Cropping. Losses of Phosphoric Acid and Potash. 
One Crop Farming. Diversification and Rotation of 
Crops. Make up of a Rotation. Reasons for Rotating 
Crops. Rotation Keeps Down Weeds. Legumes are 
Profitable. Rotation Helps to Distribute Farm Labor. 
Rotation Helps to Check or Eradicate Insects and 
Plant Diseases. It Furnishes Feed for Live Stock. It 
Allows a Regular Income. It Prevents Losses of Fer- 
tility. It Utilizes Plant Food More Evenly. It Saves 
Fertilizer Expenditure. It Regulates the Humus Sup- 
ply. System of Farming. 



CONTENTS V 

CHAPTER IV— Farm Manures 35-47 

Kind of Manure. Conditions Affecting the Value of 
Manure. The Age of the Animal. The Use of the 
Animal. The Kind of Bedding and Amount Infiuence.s 
the Value of Manure. Straw. Leaves. Sawdust. Peat. 
Absorptive Power of Bedding. Horse Manure. Cow- 
Manure. Hog Manure. Sheep Manure. Hen Ma- 
nure. Analyses of Farm Manures. How to Calculate 
the Amount of Manure Produced. The Nature and 
Amount of Feed Used Affects the Value of Manure. 
Lasting Effect of Manure. Care, Preservation, and 
Use of Manure. Waste of Manure. Leaching. Fer- 
mentations. Keep Manure Moist. Composting Ma- 
nure. Store Manure Under Cover. Preservatives. 
Physical Effects of Manure. Manure Produces a Bet- 
ter Moisture Condition. It Improves the Texture of 
the Soil. It Prevents Mechanical Loss by Winds. It 
Benefits Grass Land. Bacteriological Effects of Ma- 
nure. Time to Apply. Amount to Apply. How to 
Apply. 

CHAPTER V High Grade Nitrogenous Materials.. 4^-59 
Forms of Nitrogen. The Meaning of the Form of 
Nitrogen. The Vegetable Substances. Cotton-Seed 
Meal. Composition of Cotton-Seed Meal. Value of 
Cotton-Seed Meal. Linseed Meal. Castor Pomace. 
The Chief .Animal Substances. Dried Blood. Tankage. 
Grades of Tankage. Variation in Tankage. Azotin. 
Steamed Horn and Hoof Meal. Dry Ground Fish. 
King Crab. Guano. Ammonium Sulphate. Compo- 
sition and Availability. Nitrate of Soda. Composition 
and Properties of Nitrate of Soda. Calcium Nitrate. 
Calcium Cyanamid. Properties of. Fertilizing Value of. 

CHAPTER VI Low Grade Nitrogenous Materials 

and Functions of Nitrogen 60-69 

Raw Leather Meal. Dissolved Leather. Feather 
Waste. Hair and Fur Waste. Mora Meal. Beet 
Refuse. Scutch. Horn and Hoof Meal. Wool Waste, 
Shoddies, Etc. Garbage Tankage. Dried Peat. Avail- 
ability of Nitrogenous Materials. Value of Low Grade 
Materials. Use of Low Grade Materials is Increasing. 
Nitrogenous Materials to Use. Functions of Nitrogen. 
Excessive Nitrogen Invites Diseases. 



VI CON TK NTS 

CHAPTER VII -Phosphates 70-79 

Bones. Raw Bone-Meal. Steamed Botie-Meal. De- 
gree of Fineness. Bone-Black. Bone-Ash. Bone 
Tankage. Dry Ground Fish. Mineral Phosphates. 
South Carolina Phosphates. Florida Phosphates. 
Tennessee Phosphates. Canadian Apatite. Rodunda 
Phosphate. Basic Slag. Phosphatic Guanos. Classifi- 
cation of Phosphates. Form of the Phosphates. 
Availability of the Phosphates. 

CHAPTER VIII— Superphosphates and Effect of Phos- 
phoric Acid 80-89 

Manufacture of Super or Acid Phosphate. Phosphates 
of Lime. Insoluble Phosphoric Acid. Soluble Phos- 
phoric Acid. Reverted Phosphoric Acid. Basic Slag 
Phosphate. Value of Reverted Phosphoric Acid. Dif- 
ference Between Phosphate and Superphosphate. 
Names Applied to Superphosphates. Available Phos- 
phoric Acid. The Difference in the Formsof Phosphoric 
Acid in Superphosphates. Some People Favor Bone 
Superphosphates. Double Superphosphates. No Free 
Acid in Treated Phosphates. The Color of an Acid 
Phosphate. How to Made Superphosphate at Home. 
Amount of Phosphoric Acid in Soils. Fixation of 
Phosphoric Acid. Functions of Phosphoric Acid. 
The Kind of Phosphate to U.se. 

CHAPTER IX— Potash Fertihzers go-97 

Potash Salts (Stassfurt). History of. Kinds of. 
Kainit. Sylvinit. Muriate of Potash. Sulphate of 
Potash. Double Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia. 
Potash Manure Salts. Potassium-Magnesium Car- 
Vjonate. Potash from Organic Sources. Wood Ashes. 
Value of Wood Ashes. Tobacco vStems and Stalks. 
Cotton-Seed Hull Ashes. Carbonate of Potash. Beet 
Molasses. Amount of Potash in vSoils. Forms of 
Potash. Fixation of Potash. Functions of Potash. 
Potash Favors Seed Formation. It E^fifects the Leaves 
and Maturity. It Neutralizes Plant Acids. It Checks 
Insect Pests and Plant Diseases. 

CHAPTER X— Miscellaneous PVrtilizer Materials. . . . 98-103 
Compost. Seaweed. Marl. Peat and Muck. Pul- 
verized Manures. Fresh Fish and P'resh Fish Wastes. 
Sewage and Sewage Sludge. Coal Ashes. Lime Kiln 
Ashes. Rice Hull Ashes. Corn Cob Ashes. Brick 



COXTKXTS Vll 

Kiln Ashes. Soot. Street Sweepings. Potas.siuni 
Nitrate. Atnnioniuni Nitrate. Silicate of Potash. 
Iron Sulphate. Common Salt. Powder Waste. Sul- 
phates of Magnesia and Soda. Carbonate of Magnesia. 
Ammonium Chloride. Manganese Salts. 

CHAPTER XI — Lime, Gypsum aud Green Mainire.s. . 104-111 
Lime. Forms of. When Soils Need Lime. How to 
Find Out When Soils are Acid. How to Apply Lime. 
The Form to Use. Amount of Lime to Apply. Le- 
gumes Require an Alkaline Soil. Mechanical Action 
of Lime. Lime Decreases the Action of Some Fungus 
Diseases. Gas Lime. Gypsum. Green Manures. 
Classes of. The Best Time to Plow Under a Green 
Manure. The Time to Grow a Green Manure. Deep 
Rooted Plants Valuable. 

CHAPTER XII— Commercial Fertilizers 1 12-1 18 

Causes of the Large Consumption of Fertilizers. Fer- 
tilizer Materials Used by Manufacturers. Basis of Pur- 
chase. Unit and Ton Basis. Fertilizer Laws. The 
Meaning and the Interpretation of the Guarantee. 

CHAPTER XIII — Valuation of Fertilizers 1 19-125 

Interpretation of Chemical Analyses. Agricultural 
Values. Commercial Values. Trade Values. How 
Obtained. A Discussion of the Table of Trade Values. 
How to Calculate Commercial Values. 

CHAPTER XIV— Home Mixtures 126-133 

Definitions. Manufacturers' Claims Against Home 
Mixing. Reasons Why Farmers Should Mix Fertili- 
zers at Home. Home IMi.xing Acquaints the Farmer 
with Materials Used. Home ]\(ixing Does Away With 
the Purchase of Unnecessary Constituents. How to 
Mix Fertilizers at Home. How to Calculate Percent- 
ages from Known Amounts. How to Calculate 
Amounts from Known Percentages. 

CHAPTER XV— A Few Remarks about Fertilizers . . 134-143 
Brand and Trade Names. How to Purchase a Ferti- 
lizer. Study the Guarantee. F'ertilizers Should Reach 
their Guarantees. Fertilizers do not Deteriorate Much 
on Standing. The Time to Apply Fertilizers. How 
Fertilizers are Applied. Is it Profitable to U.se Fer- 
tilizers? Amount of Fertilizer to use. 



CHAPTER I. 



CHEMICAL ELEMENTS NEEDED BY PLANTS AND THE COMPO- 
SITION OF PLANTS. 

Ill order to thoroughly understand the subject "fertiHzers," 
we must become familiar with the chemical elements needed 
by plants. 

There are about 8i chemical elements known to us, but only 
15 of these are required for plant life so far as we know. 

The Fifteen Elements. — Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, 
potassium, phosphorus, calcium, sulphur, silicon, iron, chlorine, 
magnesium, sodium, aluminum and manganese are the elements 
used by plants. Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine, in 
the pure state, generally occur as gases, while the other ele- 
ments are solids. 

The Symbols. — The chemist uses the following symbols for these 
elements. 

Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O) Nitrogen (N) 

Carbon (C) Potassium (K) Phosphorus (P ) 

Calcium (Ca) Sulphur (S) vSilicon(Si) 

Iron (Fe) Chlorine (CI) Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium (Na) Aluminum (Al) Manganese ( Mn) 

Small amounts of oxygen are sometimes used by plants in the 
elementary state. Certain plants also use nitrogen in the free 
state. All other elements, and generally oxygen and nitrogen 
must be combined with other of these elements to be favorable 
for the support of plant life. 

Hydrogen. — This is a colorless invisible gas, having no smell 
or taste. It is generally found in combination with other ele- 
ments as water, hydrochloric acid, marsh gas, sulphuretted hy- 
drogen, all acids and most organic (animal and vegetable) com- 
pounds. It is most cotnmonly found as water (H.O), which 
is the most necessary food of the plant. In the free state hydro- 
gen occurs only in small quantities upon the earth in the gases 
of petroleum wells, around volcanic eruptions, and it is evolved 
by the fermentation and decomposition of some organic sub- 
stances. 



2 FERTIUTV AND FHRTILIZKR IIIXTS 

Oxygen. — In the free gaseous state, about one-fifth, by bulk, 
of the atmosphere is made up of this element, mechanically 
mixed with nitrogen. It is found in enormous quantities in 
combination with other elements. It constitutes about eight- 
ninths by weight of water and nearly one-half of the earth's 
crust. All combustion and decay require oxygen. The plant 
stores up oxygen in combination with other elements and with- 
out oxygen plants would die. The plant takes in oxygen, from 
the atmosphere, in combination with carbon, as carbonic acid 
gas, through the openings on the under sides of the leaves ; the 
carbon is absorbed and the excess of oxygen given off. Oxygen 
combines with most other elements forming oxides. It often 
combines with other elements in varied amounts forming oxides 
of diff'erent composition which are generally quite stable. The 
color of soils is often determined by oxides such as iron oxides. 
The iron oxides influence the moisture condition of soils be- 
cause of their absorptive qualities and help to oxidize organic 
substances in the soil. The roots of plants when deprived of air 
in the soil are able to draw upon iron oxides for oxvgen. 

Nitrogen. — About four-fifths of the atmosphere, or about 35,000 




Fig. I. — Cowpeas liave the power of gathering nitrogen from the air. 

tons over every acre of land, is made up of nitrogen in the free 



CIIKMICAL HLKMKXTS NEEDED BV I'LAXIS 3 

gaseous state. In c()nil)inatiun this element is found in many 
substances such as ammonia, sodium nitrate (Chile saltpeter), 
potassium nitrate and many organic compounds. Certain plants. 
namely the legumes, of which the pea. bean, alfalfa, clovers, 
covvpea, soy bean. etc.. are members, have the power of gather- 
ing nitrogen from the air. by means of certain growths (tuber- 
cles) on their roots.* .-\lthough nitrogen is abundant in the free 
state it cannot be used as such by most plants and it must be 
combined with other elements to be available as plant food. 
Nitrogen as sold in fertilizers is in combination with other ele- 
ments, and is the most fugitive and expensive of the essential 
elements. This will be described more fully later on. 

Carbon. — This element is found in the free state in charcoal, 
graphite and diamonds. In coal it is also present in an impure 
state. Muck and peat contain considerable carbon. Humus 
(the decayed organic matter in soils) is made up partly of car- 
bon. In combination with oxygen we find carbon as carljon 
dioxide (carbonic acid gas) in the air. It is present in greater 
((uantities in plant life than any other element. Henry^ says: 
''10,000 volumes of air contain about 3 volumes of carbonic acid 
gas : 32 cubic yards of air hold one pound of this gas. An acre 
of growing wheat will gather during four months, 2,000 pounds 
of carbonic acid gas. or an amount equal to all the air contains 
over the same area of land to a height of three miles." All 
of our farm crops use a great amount of carbon in the form of 
carbonic acid gas. All carbonates (limestone, chalk, mar1)le. 
shells, etc. ) and all organic substances contain carljon. The car- 
bonates of lime found in the soil exert a great influence upon the 
conversion of some forms of nitrogen into available plant food 
and in the general physical condition of the soil. 

Potassium in combination is very common. It is mined in large 
quantities as potassium salts in the Stassfurt mines of .Germany. 
The presence of this element in wood ashes, as potassium car- 
bonate, makes this substance a valuable fertilizer. Potassium 
is found in most rocks and soils. In plants it is associated with 
organic acids. It is found in sea water and saltpeter. This 

1 Feeds and Feeding. 



4 FERTIIvITY AND FERTIUZER HINTS 

element is essential to plant growth and is found in the stems, 
leaves and fruits of plants. 

Phosphorus is found in combination with oxygen and metals, 
as phosphates. Vast deposits of phosphates are found in Tennes- 
see, South Carolina, Florida and some of the western states. 
It is present in many rocks and most soils and is an important 
element for plant food. It exists in combination with organic 
substances in plants and constitutes an important part of the ash 
of plants. Bones, which contain about 60-65 P^r cent, of cal- 
cium phosphate, are an important source of phosphorus for plant 
food. 

Calcium is an element which occurs in combination in many 
substances as lime, marble, shells, coral and gypsum. It makes 
up about one-sixteenth part of the earth's crust. Plants and 
animals require this element, sometimes in larger amounts than 
one would imagine. The bones of animals are made up largely 
of this element in combination as lime. Lime is a great factor 
in regulating the physical condition of soils. 

Sulphur. — This is a yellow substance which is found in the 
free state in large deposits in Louisiana, western LTnited States, 
and Sicily. It is found in combination in gypsum (an important 
indirect fertilizer), pyrites (a source of sulphuric acid), galena, 
etc. It is also found in many natural waters. In plants it oc- 
cupies an important place, occurring in organic compounds as 
protein, or nitrogenous portions, and also as sulphuric acid. Most 
of our soils are sufficiently supplied with this element for the 
nourishment of plants. 

Silicon occurs in combination as sand, flint, c[uartz, etc., and 
constitutes about one-half the earth's crust. It is present in most 
rocks and soils and plays an important part in the physical make 
up of the soil. Plants require this element to support certain 
parts of. their structure. The hulls and straws of plant sub- 
stances are often comparatively rich in this element. 

Iron is a very common element and in combination it is widely 
distributed. Although used in small amounts by plants it is 
nevertheless very important, as it is necessary for the produc- 
tion and activity of chlorophyll (the green coloring matter of 



CHEMICAL ElvEMKNTS NEEDED i;V PLANTS 5 

plants). The color of soils (red and yellow) are chiefly due to 
the presence of iron compounds. 

Chlorine is most commonly found as chloride (common salt). 
It also occurs in combination with hydrogen, as hydrochloric acid. 

Magnesium. — This element is found in most rocks and soils 
in sufficient amounts for the needs of the plant. It is used in 
different parts of the plant but mainly in the formation of seeds. 

Sodium. — Chloride is the commonest compoiuid of this ele- 
ment and is present in conrmon salt, sea water, salt lakes, and 
in many springs and waters. It occurs in sodium carbonate and 
sodium nitrate ; the latter compound is a valuable fertilizer be- 
cause of its nitrogen contc.it. Sodium is believed to be helpful 
in plant growth. 

Aluminum. — This element is the most widely distrilmted next 
to oxygen and silicon of the earth's crust. About one-twelfth of 
the earth's crust is aluminum. In combination it is found in clay, 
slate, kaolin, etc. Although it is very abundant it is not used 
much by plants. 

Manganese occurs in combination as manganese blend, man- 
ganese spar, manganite, etc. Plants use this element in small 
amounts although it is not believed to be necessary for plant 
growth."" 

How Plants Feed.' — Every seed is made up of a germ (embryo 
plant) surrounded by stored up food. When a seed is dropped 
into the warm soil it germinates and feeds on this stored up 
food material until it has put forth a root, stem and leaves. It 
is now able to gather its food from the air, water and soil. On 
the roots of plants are minute root hairs, composed of single 
cells, which absorb food materials from the soil water, by means 
of osmosis or diiTusion. The leaves, on the under sides, have 
minute openings which permit the breathing of air which con- 
tains carbonic acid gas. The carbon is used in building up the 
plant and the excess of oxygen is given back to the atmosphere. 
This process requires the presence of light as does chlorophyll 
(green coloring matter of plants). Plants will grow without 

1 Much of the remaining portion of this chapter has been taken from Halligan's 
Elementary Treatise On Stock Feeds and Feeding. 



6 FKRTII^ITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

light as lonj^- as the food supply in the seed lasts, hut they will 
be white and will not produce seed. By the aid of sunlight the 
materials gathered by the root hairs and leaves are manufactured 
into com])ounds and retained bv the plants. 

The Food of the Plant. — The ])lant kee])s growing until it ])ro- 
duces seed. It may continue its growth for years as is the case 
with trees. In this continual growing process we cannot see 
the plant feeding l)ut we know its nourishment is obtained from 
the soil, water and air. The food of the plant, then, consists of 
the mineral substances, water and gases taken from the soil and 
air. 

Composition of Plants. — All plants are made up of water and 
dry matter. The water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen 
while the dry matter contains many elements and combinations 
of elements. 

Water.— All plants and parts of plants contain water. The 
water is present in two forms, namely, physiological and hygro- 
scopic. 

1. Physiological water is that which is contained in the plant 
structure. It is obtained from the soil. It is used to keep the 
leaf tissues and their cell walls moist so that carbonic acid gas 
may be absorbed, to transfer fo(^d materials, and to regulate the 
temperature of the plant b\" means of evaporation of water, just 
as the temperature of the animal body is regulated by the evapora- 
tion of perspiration. When green grass is dried in the sun the 
loss in weight is mostly due to evaporation of physiological water. 

2. Hygroscopic water is that which is taken up from the air 
and may vary from day to day according to the humiditv of the 
surrounding air. On rainy days more water would be taken up 
than on dry days. The writer has often ('etermined the water 
content of the same samples of corn meal, wheat bran, cotton- 
seed meal, hays, etc., on different days and found variations 
often of two per cent. Sometimes there is an increase and at 
other times a decrease of hygroscopic water, depending upon the 
humidity of the surn^unding air. The hygroscopic moisture also 
varies with ditTerent jilant materials. 



CIIKMICAL ELK-MKNTS NKI'DED i:V I'LAX IS 



Amounts of Water Used by Plants. — According to Whitson, the 
ainount of water used by plants varies greatly with the kind of 
plant and witli climatic conditions, but is always large. For 
instance, in the growth of one pound of dry matter of corn 
about 250 to 300 pounds of water are used ; for potatoes, 350 
to 400 pounds: fur clover, 300 to 600 pounds. 

Amounts of Water Exhaled by Plants.^ — 



One acre 
exhales 



Pounds of 
water 

Wheat 409,832 

Clover 1 ,096,234 

Sunflowers 12,585,994 

Cabbage 5,049, 194 

Grape vines 73^,733 

Hops 4,445,021 

Variation of Water in Plants. — Some species of plants contain 
much more water than others and the different parts of the 
same plant s1k)W a great variation in water content. We have 
all no doubt noticed that certain fruits like the apple, pear, lemon, 
plum, peach, strawberry, etc., and roots and tubers as the turnip, 
beet, radish, carrot, Irish ]iotato, etc., contain a great deal of 
water. Perhaps some have not heretofore thought that sub- 
stances like corn grain, wheat kernel, rice kernel, the several 
grain straws, etc., have water present. The following table gives 
us the percentage of water in some familiar plants and parts 
of plants. 



Apple 

Grape • 

Peach 

Pear 

Straw her r}- 

Roots and tubers 

Beet (mangel) 

Carrot 

Irish potato 

Sweet potato 

Turnip 




Forage plants (green) 



Alfalfa 71.8 

Corn I 79.3 

Cowpea 83.6 

Sorghum | 79.4 

Timothy 1 61.6 



Cereals and straws 



Corn (grain) 
Oats (grain) 
Rice ( rough ) 
Rye straw- • • 
Wheat straw 



10.6 
1 i.o 
10.9 

7-1 
9.6 



StockbridKC, Rock and Soils 



8 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

Water in Young and Mature Plants. — The percentage of water 
in young plants is greater than in mature plants. This is easily 
accounted for because the young plant uses a great deal of water 
in transferring food materials required for its growth. The 
Maine State College conducted an investigation on timothy with 
the following results ■} 

Water Water 

Per cent. Per cent. 

Nearly headed out 78.7 Out of blossom 65.2 

In full blossom 71.9 Nearly ripe 63.3 

The results on timothy are similar to what would be found 
with other plants. It follows that the more mature a plant is, 
the easier it is to field cure. 

Active cells in plants contain more water than do the older 
or less active cells and this may account for the larger per- 
centage of water found in young plants. 

Dry Matter of Plants. — As previously stated, the plant is made 
up of water and dry matter. When water is driven off from 
plants the dry matter is what remains. Now if we burn this 
dry matter a large proportion of it passes off in the form of 
invisible gases. This material which so disappears, in burning, 
is known as organic matter, that which is left is the ash or 
mineral matter or inorganic matter. The organic imatter is 
composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, etc. The ash 
is made up of soda, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, potassium, cal- 
cium, silicon, etc.* 

We may express the composition of plants as : 

Plants ( jy^^^"" ,, (Ash 

I Dry matter | ^^^^^^.^ ^^^^^^^^. 

Composition of the Dry Matter of Plants. — A German scientist, 
Knop, estimated: according to Jordan: "That if all the species 
of the vegetable kingdom, exclusive of the fungi, were fused into 
one mass, the ultimate composition of the dry matter of this mix- 
ture would be the following:" 

' Jordan, The Feeding of Animals. 



CHEMICAL KLKMKNTS NEEOED BY PLANTS 9 

Per cent. 

Carbon 45.0 

Oxygen 42.0 

Hydrogen 6.5 

Nitrogen 1.5 

Mineral compounds (ash) 5.0 

From the above analysis it is readily seen that carbon and 
oxygen make up the largest proportion of plants. Let us ex- 
amine the composition of some farm products that are familiar 
to us, and find out if this same predominance of carbon and 
oxygen exists.^ 



Clover hay 47 

Wheat kernel 

Fodder beets 

Fodder beet leaves • • 
Wheat straw 



Carbon 


Oxygen 


Hydrogen 


Nitrogen 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


47-4 


37.8 


5.0 


2. I 


46.1 


43-4 


5-8 


2-3 


42.8 


43-4 


58 


1-7 


38.1 


30.8 


5-r 


4-5 


48.4 


38.9 


5-3 


0.4 



Ash 
Per cent. 



7-7 

2.4 

6.3 

21.5 
7.0 



There is some variation in the composition of these farm 
products but the carbon and oxygen constitute the largest amounts 
of the elements present. 

This predominance of carbon and oxygen is due to the fact 
that about nineteen-twentieths of the plants' food is obtained 
from air and water, and the remaining one-twentieth is derived 
from mineral compounds of the soil and soil water. In other 
words the farmer only has to supply a small proportion of the 
elements necessary for producing good crops.* 

Acids and Bases. — The mineral elements that make up the ash 
of plants are not present in the free state but in various combi- 
nations, as acids and bases. The acids and bases of the mineral 
elements of ash are : 



' Jordan, The Feeding of Aninial.s. 



lO 



FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 



Acids 
Sulphuric (hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen) H.JSO4 
Hydrochloric (hydrogen and chlorine^ HCl 
Phosphoric (hydrogen, phosphorus and oxygen ) H,,P.,0^ 
Carbonic (carbon and oxygen) CO., 
Silicic (silicon and oxygen) SiO., 

Bases 
Lime (calcium and oxygen) CaO 
Soda (sodium and oxygen) NajO 
Potash (potassium and oxygen) K^^O 
Magnesia (magnesium and oxygen) MgO 
Iron oxide (iron and oxygen) Fe.^O;, 
The mineral elements do not exist as acids and bases in the 
ash because in the burning of plant substances there is a re- 
arrangement of the mineral elements and salts are formed. 

Salts. — The elements exist in the ash of plants as salts. That 
is the acids and bases are united and form : 
Phosphates ] | Calcium 

Sulphates ^ ] Magnesium 

Chlorides f *^ ^ Sodium 
Carbonates j [ Potassium 

\\'e are all familiar with some of these salts. A few of th>-^ 
combinations are : 

Chloride of sodium (common salt) Sulphate of soda (Glauber's salts) 

Carbonate of lime (limestone) Sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) 

Chloride of potash (muriate of potash ) vSulphate of calcium (gypsum) 
Carbonate of soda (baking powder) Sulphate of potash (common sul- 
phate of potash of commerce) 

Variation of Ash. — The content of ash in diflferent plants and 
parts of plants varies a great deal as the following table shows: 



Corn 

Oats 

Rice 

Wheat 

Roots and tubers (fresh 

Beet ( mangel ) 

Carrot 

Irish potato • 

Sweet potato 



Ash 
Per cent. 



1-5 

5-5 
1.8 



I.I 
i.o 
i.o 
1.0 



Oat 

Rice 

Rve 

Wheal 

Forage plants (hay 

Alfalfa •• 

Crimson clover 

Orchard grass 

Timothv ■ 



Ash 
Per cent. 



5-1 

7.8 

3-2 

4-2 



7-4 
S.6 
6.0 
4-4 



CIIK.MICAL KLKMENTS NEEDKD BY I'LAXTS 



I I 



Different parts of the same plant vary in ash content. 



Corn grain 

Corn leaves 

Corn (whole plant) 
Corn germ 




Corn stover (whole plant ex 

cept ears) 

Corn shucks 

Corn cob 

Corn bran 



Ash 
Per cent. 



4-9 
3-4 
1.4 
1-3 



There is also a variation in the amounts of compounds in the 
ash of different parts of the same plant. The percentages of 
the compounds in this table are figured on lOO per cent, ash of 
sugar-cane.^ 



Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Iron oxide 

Alumina 

Silica 

Phosphoric acid 
Sulphuric acid- • 
Carbonic acid - • 

Chlorine 

Carbon 

Ash 



Ash of 

leaves 

Per cent. 



31-25 
1. 17 
5-90 
5.II 
1.45 
1.03 

30-32 
7-25 

11.29 
1. 10 

3.08 
0.16 
2.23 



Ash of 

stalk 

Per cent. 



3^23 
1.30 

5-19 
5.76 

I-I3 
0.25 

15.70 

5-27 
18.47 
2.70 

4-52 
0-54 
0.64 



Ash of 

roots 

Per cent. 



17-39 
085 

3-45 
2.61 
3.60 
4.70 
4952 
3-99 
9.15 
0-45 
0.98 
2 30 
1.87 



From the figures given in the foregoing tables we find that 
the leaves of plants contain the most ash. The straws contain 
more ash than the grains. 

Let us see the relation of the ash of roots to the leaves of 
the same plant. 



Roots 
Per cent. 

Ash 



Leaves 

Per cent. 

Ash 



Sugar-beet 3.83 14. 8S 

Stock turnip S.oi 11.64 

The per cent, of ash in seeds is generally less than in the 
plant from which they are derived.* 

' Bill. 91, Louisiana Experiment Station. 



12 FERTILITY .AND FERTILIZER HINTS 



Sorghum seed 
Cowpea seed . . 
Soja bean seed 



Ash 
Per cent. 



2.1 
3-2 

4-7 



Sorghum fodder. 

Cowpea ha)' 

Soja bean hay • . . 



Ash 
Per cent. 



4.6 

7-5 

7.2 



Occurrence of Mineral Elements in Plants. — According to 
Forbes;^ Mineral substances of fooclstuffs are present in four 
mechanical conditions: i. In solution in the plant juices; 2. as 
crystals in the tissues; 3. as incrustations in cells and 4. in 
chemical combination with the living substance. 

The mineral content of any species of plant varies consider- 
ably as afifected (i) by the composition of the soil and the soil 
water, (2) by the various factors controlling transpiration of 
water by the plant and (3) by the loss of mineral substance 
either through shedding of parts or through the leaching effect 
of dews and rains. 

Distribution of Ash in Plants. — Roots and seeds generally con- 
tain much less ash than leaves because the mineral elements are 
carried to the leaves for the elaboration (manufacturing) of 
food and then the water evaporates and the ash remains. The 
ash present in roots and seeds is usually needed for supporting 
germination and early growth of the plant, while some of that 
in the leaves is in excess of what is really needed. 

Phosphorus and potassium are present in the largest amounts 
in seeds, followed by magnesia. Silicon and potassium pre- 
dominate in cereal grasses and straws, and the per cent, of cal- 
cium is usually larger than phosphorus or magnesium. The 
leguminous crops (alfalfa, clovers, covvpeas, soy beans, etc.) con- 
tain more calcium than phosphorus or potassium. Roots and 
legumes contain much less silicon than straws. 

Ash of Young and Mature Plants. — According to Wolff the per 
cent, of ash of the dry matter of wheat, oats, rye, and clover 
decreases with the growth of the plant. The ash of healthful 
plants is generally higher in calcium than in sickly plants. The 
per cent, of calcium and potassium in the ash of grass plants 
decreases in the growing of the plant and the silicon increases. 
In the ash of the dry matter of clover, the magnesium and cal- 
cium increase while the potassium decreases. 

1 Bui. 201, Ohio Experiment Station. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. 

The fertility of the soil is shown in the crops produced and a 
soil is said to be fertile when profitable crops are grown under 
favorable conditions. 

Composition of Soils. — In order to understand the conditions 
which atTect fertility let us become familiar with the composi- 
tion of soils. Soils are made up of disintegrated (ground) 
rocks and decayed plant and animal life. Some soils, like sandy 
soils, predominate in rock particles while peaty soils are rich 
in decayed plant material. Most soils contain both ground rocks 
and decayed plants. 

Inorganic Matter. — That part of the soil composed of ground 
rocks (sand, silt, clay, etc.) is called inorganic matter and 
corresponds to some extent to the ash, or non-combustible, or in- 
organic matter in plants. Of course the particles of inorganic mat- 
ter in the soil may be different from the original rocks from which 
they were derived, due to the action of rain, frost, sun, etc., yet 
we find that a considerable portion of these particles is often of 
the same composition as the original rocks. 

Organic Matter. — The decaying vegetable or animal matter in 
the soil is called organic matter. It is that part of the soil 
which is driven off when burned and corresponds to the organic 
matter in plants. Most of the organic matter in soils comes 
from decaying vegetation. When this decaying vegetable or animal 
matter becomes thoroughly decomposed it assumes a black waxy 
consistency and is called humus. This humus is a very im- 
portant constituent and influences to a great extent the physical 
and biological condition of soils. 

The amount of organic matter in soil influences its water hold- 
ing capacity, texture, temperature, color, supply of available 
plant food and general productiveness. 

Factors Influencing Soil Fertility. — There are many factors in- 
fluencing soil fertility and these may be summed up under the 
following heads : 



14 



I'KRTILITV AND FERTILIZER illXTS 



1. The available supply of plant food. 

2. The physical condition of the soil. 

3. The biological condition of the soil. 

I. The Plant Food Supply. — It may be surprising to know that 
most farm soils, even those that produce poor crops, are abund- 
antly supplied with plant food.* 

Chester of the Delaware Agricultural College, states:^ An 
average of the results of 49 analyses of the typical soils of 
the United States showed per acre for the first eight inches of 
surface, 2,600 pounds of nitrogen, 4.800 pounds of phosphoric 
acid and 13,400 pountls of potash. The average yield of wheat 
in the United States is 14 bushels per acre. Such a crop will 

Plant Food Removkd by Crops in Pounds Per Acre.- 



Crop 



Wheat, 20 bu . . . . 
Straw 

Total 

Barley, 40 bu • • • • 
Straw 

Total 

Oats, 50 bu 

Strpw 

Total 

Corn, 65 bu 

Stalks ^ 

Total 

Peas, 30 bu 

Straw 

Total 

Flax, 15 bu 

Straw 

Total 

Meadow hay . . . . 
Red clover hay • ■ 
Potatoes, 300 bu. 
Mangels, 10 tons 



Gross 
Weight 



1,200 
2,oco 



1,920 
3.000 



1,600 
3,000 



2,200 
6,000 



1,800 
3.500 



900 
1,800 



2,000 

4,oco 

18,000 

20,000 



Nitrogen 



25 
10 

35 
28 

12 

40 
35 
15 

50 

40 
45 

85 



39 
15 



54 



80 
75 



Phosphoric 
acid 



12.5 
7-5 

20 
15 

5 

20 

12 

6 



Potash 



7 
28 

35 

8 

30 

3« 
10 

35 



18 

18 
14 

32 
18 

7 

25 

15 
3 

iS 
20 
28 
40 
35 



45 
15 
80 



I,inie 



8 



9 

t.5 

9-5 



1 1 



95 


21 


22 


4 


38 


71 


60 


75 


8 


3 


19 


13 


27 


16 


45 


12 


66 


75 


150 


50 


150 


30 



' Bowker, Plant Food. 
Bui. 47, Minnesota Experiment Statioti. 



THK FERTILITY OF THE SOIL 15 

remove 29.7 pounds of nitrogen, Q.5 pounds of phosphoric acid 
and 13.7 pounds of potash. Now if all the potential nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash could he rendered availahle, there 
is present in such an average soil, in the first eight inches, 
enough nitrogen to last 90 years, enough phosphoric acid for 
500 years and enough potash for i.ooo years. 

Let us find out the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
potash and lime removed i)er acre hy some of our leading farm 
crops. 

From these figures it is evident that all of the above soils 
have sufificient amounts of plant food to last for manv years. 
Corn yielding 65 bushels per acre, only takes away 85 pounds 
of nitrogen, 32 pounds of phosphoric acid and 95 pounds of 
potash. Mangels which are heavy users of potash only show a 
removal of 150 pounds for a ten ton crop. When we compare 
the amounts of these constituents removed by crops and the 
total supply in the average soil we may better realize the amount 
of stored u]) plant food in soils.''' 

Plant Food not Available. — The question naturally arises, what 
is the use of adding fertilizers or manure to soils when such 
large amounts of plant food are present ? The plant food in 
the soil is dormant ; it is locked uj:) : it is unavailable. Available 
plant food may be present but the condition of the soil may 
be such that the plant cannot utilize it. The soil may be acid or 
sour, or it may contain objcctional)le substances distasteful to 
plants. 

The plant obtains its nourishment from the salts in solution 
in the soil water and these soluble salts constitute the available 
plant food. The chemist can determine the total plant food, or 
the, potential fertility, in the soil. Init he cannot tell us how 
much is available. The available plant food supply may be 
ascertained, to a certain extent, by carrying on field experiments. 
The results of such experiments will of course varv with dififer- 
ent soils and different crops. The chemist can determine whether 
a soil is acid, alkaline or neutral and from such data advise 
whether lime would benefit the soil, the amount to applv and the 
kind of fertilizers to use. Tn such cases a chemical analvsis is 



i6 



FERTIIvITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 



exceedingly valuable but ordinarily field trials with crops prove 
the better way of determining productiveness. 

The Essential Elements. — In the preceding chapter the elements 
needed by plants were discussed and the composition of plants 
given. From the composition of plants aided by field experi- 
ments it has been possible to learn that certain elements are 
necessary for plant growth. From this data it has been ascer- 
tained that only three and sometimes four elements are rec^uired 
to be furnished the plant for its complete development, as the 
other elements are fortunately present in sufficient quantities in 
the air and the soil so that we do not consider them. Nitrogen, 
(N) phosphorus (phosphoric acid, PioO-) and potassium (potash. 
KoO) are the elements usually exhausted most readily from 
the soil, and occasionally calcium (lime, CaO). Because of the 
necessity of adding nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash for the 
growth of most crops, the name "essential" is applied to these 
elements, and the remaining elements are termed "unessential." 
The essential elements, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash are 
usually found in larger amounts in plants and in smaller quanti- 
ties in soils than the other elements. Nitrogen and phosphoric 
acid are usually more liable to be deficient than potash, and lime 
is only occasionally lacking. The term fertilizers is applied to 
materials containing any or all of these essential elements, in 
available form, and are supposed to make up for the deficiencies 
in the soil. Fertilizers mav contain other elements as magnesia, 
sulphuric acid, etc., though needed by the plant are unessential as 
the soil contains a sufficient amount for crops. 

The fifteen elements used by plants may be classified as: 
Elements sometimes lack- Elements obtained from Elements that are pres- 



in the soil 

Nitrogen 

Phosphorus 

Potassium 

Calcium (occasionally) 



the air or water 

H}-drogen 

Oxygen 

Carbon 

Nitrogen (sometimes) 



ent usually in suffi- 
cient amounts 

Calcium (usually) 

Iron 

Sulphur 

Magnesium 

Silicon 

Sodium 

Chlorine 

Manganese 

Aluminium 



THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL 



17 



One Element Cannot Replace Another. — It must be understood 
that no one of these essential elements can take the place of 
another, as each has its particular functions to perform which 
are different for each element. Therefore should a soil be de- 
ficient in any of these essential elements, the addition of those 
that are lacking will tend to produce good crops, provided other 
conditions are favorable. Let us illustrate this by supposing we 




t'lg. 2. — I, Unfertilized; 2. Potasli, phos. acid, nitrogen; 3, phos. acid, nitrogen. 
Courtesy German Kali Works. 

wish to plant a field of corn. We have perhaps plenty of avail- 
able phosphoric acid, potash and lime for the needs of the corn 
and the land is in good condition, but the available supply of 
nitrogen is deficient in the soil. We cannot grow a profitable 
crop of corn under such conditions because the phosphoric acid, 
potash and the lime are unable to take the place of the nitrogen, 
no matter how abundant they may be. Should nitrogen be sup- 
plied in sufficient amount the crop would be satisfied and should 
prove profitable, other conditions being right. 



l8 I'KRTILITV AND FKRTILIZER HINTS 

It has been found that sodium and potassium may replace 
each other, to a Hmited extent, in correcting the acidity that may 
take place in plants, although they cannot replace each other 
in supplying plant food. There are some elements which have 
common functions, but each element has its work to perform for 
the complete development of plants. 

2. Physical Condition of the Soil.— There are some soils which 
contain sufficient amounts of available plant food for the needs 
of crops but this food cannot be utilized because of other fac- 
tors which afifect the physical condition of soils. Some of these 
factors will be briefly discussed. 

Temperature.- — The temperature of the soil depends upon the 
heat of the air and the nature of the soil. It is a very important 
consideration in plant growth.* In summer the sunshine causes 
the upper soil to be warmer than the lower or deeper soil. In 
winter the deeper soil is warmer than the surface soil. In other 
words the temperature of the air affects soil warmth. 

The germination of seed, the transference of soil water, which 
contains the available plant food, the movement of the soil air, 
the development of organisms are all greater when the soil is 
warm. The coarser soils seem to warm up more readily than 
the heavy clays. The location of the land influences soil warmth. 
A soil with a southern exposure is naturally warmer than one 
with a northern location.* 

Mechanical Composition. — Should we examine a few different 
soils we would find that there is a great difference in the size 
of the particles or grains that make them up. For example, 
when lumps of different soils are l)roken up and passed through 
sieves of various sizes, or shaken in bottles with water, parti- 
cles varying in size from gravel to fine dust are apparent. The 
grains or particles of soil are usually classified into four groups: 
gravel, sand, silt and clay. Sandy soils predominate in the larg- 
est particles, gravel and sand ; alluvial or silt soils contain more 
particles the size of silt, and clay soils have more of the finest 
particles, clay. It should be understood that all soils contain 
large and small particles. A loam soil contains all the particles 
in about equal proportions.* 



TIIF: FKRTILITN' Ol" THE SOIL IQ 

The pcrcentas^cs of moisture, humus and carhonatc of Hme 
are not inchided in the mechanical analyses of soils. 

Surface Area of Soil Grains. — The surface area of soil ;^rains 
varies with the size of the particles. The smaller the grains 
the more surface area is exposed to the action of water and soil 
organisms, and the more (piickly is jjlant food rendered available.''' 

Diameter of grain. Square feet of surface in a pound. 

Coarse sand i nun 1 1.05 

Fine sand, o. i nun. 110.54 

Silt, o. 01 mm. 1,105.3s 

Cla}-, o.ooi mm. 1 1,053.81 

Fine clay, 0.0001 mm 1,100,538.16 

Lumpy Soils. — The mechanical composition of a soil is im])ort- 
ant, for the farmer to consider, in order to keep the soil re- 
ceptive for growing crops. The clustering or lumping of soils 
is brought about by the adhering of the particles due to the sur- 
face tension of the films of water surrounding the grains. As 
the water dries out the grains are held together with the aid of 
the salts in solution. Fine soils, like clay, contain manv more 
particles than sandy soils, so it is apparent that clay soils are 
more apt to form lumps than the coarser soils. 

Cracking of Soils. — When soils become dry the iilms of water 
around the soil particles become thinner and the soil contracts, 
breaking in the weakest point, causing cracks. 

Puddling of Soils. — If soils are worked when in a very wet 
condition the soil particles run together and a puddling soil is 
formed. .After such a soil, especially a clay soil, dries out it 
becames very hard and most difficult t(^ restore to good condition. 
A farmer should never work a clay soil when it is too wet. 

Freezing and Thawing.— AN'hen soils are plowed deeply in the 
fall and allowed to be acted upon by the frosts a helpful crumb 
like condition results. The action of frosts is more apparent 
when northern and southern soils are compared. The northern 
soils treated as alwve are usually in better tilth than the south- 
ern soils in sections of little or no frost. 

Plants are Benefited by Open Soils. — A good tilth of the soil 
helps the plant a great deal in securing its food, and is therefore 
an important factor in the production of cro]is. A soil should 



20 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

be compact enough to support the plant in an upright position, 
but if it is too compact the young plant has to overcome a great 
deal of resistance in securing its food. 

Plants Must Have Room. — Only a certain number of plants can 
be grown successfully on a given space of land. We have only 
to examine the root development of mature plants to learn the 
spreading tendency of plants. If plants are too crowded, im- 
perfect development is the result. The roots of plants spread 
somewhat and the distance apart is regulated to some extent by 
the available plant food, the nature of the plant and the tillage 
of the soil. In the foreign countries more plants are usually 
grown on a given area than in America but the land is perhaps 
more thoroughly tilled, because land is high in price and labor 
cheapj while in America land is comparatively cheap and labor 
high. In well tilled soils roots go deeper and do not spread so 
much as in soils in poor condition. 

Plants Require Oxygen. — A soil that is too compact will not per- 
mit of the free circulation of air. When air is excluded from 
the soil, free oxygen which is absolutely necessary for growth 
is excluded. It has been shown that when air is not freely sup- 
plied to plants they become sickly and growth is retarded. When 
a soil becomes water-logged, plants will not grow and if the 
condition continues the plants will die. Some plants will grow 
in water but the water must be fairly free from soil so as to be 
able to absorb and diiYuse oxygen from the air. It has been 
found that 40 to 60 per cent, of the water holding capacity of 
soils is the best amount and 80 per cent, is injurious. 

Drainage. — Good crops cannot be grown unless the land is well 
drained, either naturally or artificially. A certain amount of 
water is essential for crops, but a water-logged condition must 
be avoided to secure good results. 

Capillary Water. — In the preceding chapter we learned that 
crops use a great deal of water, the clover crop for example 
exhales as much as 1,096,234 pounds per acre. Crops usually 
rely on capillary water for their supply of this constituent. The 
upward movement of water in the soil is termed capillary 
moisture, or capillary water, and is caused by the surface ten- 



THK FERTILITY OI' THK SOIL 21 

sion of the films of water around the soil particles becoming 
greater as evaporation from the upper surface of the soil takes 
place. One of the most important problems in farming is to 
conserve this soil moisture and prevent its evaporation. 

Amounts of Capillary Water Held by Soils. — Sandy soils hold 
very little capillary water. After a rain it is estimated that 5 
to 10 per cent, by weight of the soil will be water. Sandy 
loams and silt loams retain 15 to 20 per cent, and heavy clay 
soils 30 to 50 per cent. Heavy clay soils are suitable for grass 
lands because of this power of holding" water, as grasses re- 
quire considerable water for maximum growth. 

How to Prevent Loss of Capillary Water. — As capillary water is 
so important for the welfare of crops we should learn how to 
prevent its loss. Water will follow along the path of least 
resistance. So if we form a soil mulch by cultivating or stirring 
the soil to the depth of two or three inches we will offer re- 
sistance to the upward movement of water. The soil should not 
be cultivated too deeply because some of the small roots are lia- 
ble to be injured. 

How to Increase the Upward Movement of Capillary Moisture. — 
When seeds are planted in dry seasons it is often advisable to bring 
up the water to aid in their germination. This may be ac- 
complished by rolling the soil thus making it firmer. After 
rolling it is important to form a soil mulch again to prevent the 
loss of all the water. =*' 

3. The Biological Condition of the Soil. — All culti^•ated produc- 
tive soils are full of organisms, both animal and vegetable, which 
aid in furnishing plant food. There are many different organ- 
isms whose functions vary a great deal. Most of these organ- 
isms are so small that they cannot be seen without the aid of 
the microscope, while some, with which we are all familiar, 
are large. 

The rodents, worms and insects all have their place in stirring 
the soil although the rodents and some of the insects are in- 
jurious to crops. Plant roots are beneficial in that they leave 
organic matter in the soil and openings for the access of water 
and air. 



22 FKRTILITV AXl) FKRTILIZF.R HINTS 

The organisms we are most interested in are the hacteria 
(minnte plants) hecause of their beneficial effect in crop ]iro- 
(hiction. 

The number of bacteria in the soil depends upon its physical 
condition. Water-logged soils, sandy soils, acid soils, and soils 
low in organic matter contain very few and sometimes no bac- 
teria. Soils rich in humus, contain sometimes as high as loo,- 
000,000 bacteria per gram,^ while the average well cultivated soil 
contains 1,000.000 to 5,000,000 per gram. The cold w'inters 
of the north decrease the number of bacteria but these multiply 
during spring" and summer.* 

Nitrification. — Certain bacteria have the power of converting 
the organic nitrogen present in animal and vegetable matter into 
ammonia. No doubt you are all familiar with the ammonia 
smell around fermenting manure. This is the result of the action 
of bacteria. The same action that takes place in the manure 
heap occurs in the soil when organic matter is present. When 
the ammonia is formed another kind of bacteria seizes it and 
changes the ammonia into nitrous acid or nitrites, and this latter 
compound is in turn attacked by another organism and con- 
verted into nitric acid or nitrates. In this latter form it is readi- 
ly dissolved by the soil water and available as plant food. There 
is a continual cycle of the forms of nitrogen. The plant uses 
the nitrogen in the form of nitrates, converts it into organic 
nitrogen, and wdien the plant dies it may be returned t(^ the soil 
to go through the same process again. 

^lanure or other organic matter hel])s nitrification."' Keeping 
the soil well open so that a liberal supply of air may permeate it 
has a beneficial effect on nitrification. The more porous the soil 
the deeper nitrification occurs. 

Denitrification. — There are some bacteria that set free nitrogen. 
These bacteria exert -a reducing action rather than an oxidizing 
one. Some reduce nitrates (nitric acid) to nitrites (nitrous oxide) 
and ammonia. Others reduce nitrates to nitrites and then to 
free gaseous nitrogen. It has been found that there are more 

1 One ounce 28. 35 grams. 



THE I'HR'niJTV OP THE SOIL 23 

denitrifying organisms than nitrifying bacteria, although the loss 
of nitrogen from well drained and tilled soils is not large, 
because the denitrifying bacteria cannot attack the nitrogen in 
such soils. The nitrogen wasting bacteria work considerable 
damage in manure heaps. 

Organisms that Gather Nitrogen. — Other organisms found in the 
soil that exert an eiTect on its fertility are those that live in 
the tubercles or nodules on the roots of certain plants called 
the legumes, of which cowpea, bean, pea, clovers, alfalfa, vetch, 
etc., are examples. These plants through the action of these 
bacteria have the power of acquiring the free gaseous nitrogen 
from the air and utilizing it in their growth. The bacteria se- 
cure this free nitrogen from the air in the soil and the plant 
acc|uires it from the bacteria. When the plant dies the nitrogen 
left in the roots remains in the soil and thus enriches it. The 
particular bacterium can only attach itself to the legume it is 
suitable to. That is, bacteria forming tubercles on the roots of 
clover will not grow on cowpea roots. When there is a plenti- 
ful supply of nitrogen as nitrates in the soil the legumes will 
not always form tubercles and utilize the free atmospheric ni- 
trogen, but will gather their supplv from the soil. I^egumes 
therefore are able to secure nitrogen from the soil and the air. 
The tubercles seem to form better in alkaline soils containing 
lime. 

Inoculation of the Soil. — The absence of tubercles on the roots 
of legumes may therefore be due to the absence of the particu- 
lar bacteria required, to the excess of nitrates, or to the acidity 
of the soil. Should the soil be deficient in the particular bac- 
teria needed, the soil should be inoculated. This inoculation is 
accomplished by sowing soil from a neighboring field that has 
produced a good crop of the kind desired, or if such a soil can- 
not be obtained, by inoculating the seed before planting with a 
pure culture which has been obtained from the tubercles of the 
kind of crop to be raised. These cultures may be obtained from 
the United States Department of Agriculture and dealers in seeds. 
In using soil from another field for inoculating, fungus diseases, 
3 



24 FliRTIIvITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

insects and objectionable weeds are often introduced which be- 
come a serious menace in the production of crops. Care must be 
taken to secure soil from a disease free field. The pure cultures 
are not always satisfactory, as they are hard to preserve in 
transportation, so that the use of soil is perhaps the better method 
just now. 



CHAPTER III. 

MAINTAINING SOIL FERTILITY. 

As the fertilizer ingredients nitrogen, phosphoric acid and 
potash are the plant food elements that have to be supplied, let 
us find out some of the ways they are taken away from the soil 
and methods of preventing and restoring their loss. 

Erosion is the loss of soil by the action of water or wind. 

Any one who has ever lived in the South is familiar with the 
tremendous losses of fertility incurred by erosion. The most 
serious losses occur on hilly clay soils. Cotton and corn are 
grown on many of the southern soils year after year and the 
soil is left bare during the winter. These soils are not plowed 
very deep and when a heavy rain comes only a small amount of 
the water can soak into the soil. If the land is hilly the rain 
forms little rills at first which finally become gullies and much 
of the good fertile soil is washed to the valleys or bottom lands. 
It a few seasons a great deal of such hill land becomes unpro- 
ductive. 

There are other sections in America besides the South where 
erosion is damaging farms. In some of the far western states 
and other sections where the land is hilly, erosion is a source of 
loss of fertility. 

Erosion by water besides carrying away the most fertile part 
of the soil puts the land in such a condition that it is difficult 
to operate. Gullies are objectionable in growing crops. 

On light sandy soils the blowing away of the surface soil by 
wind often results in serious losses of fertility. Mounds or 
ridges are often formed which interfere with cultivating the soil. 

Ways to Check Erosion. — Plowing up and down hill is very 
l)ad practice as the furrows become regular waterways during a 
rain storm. In the South the lands that are subject to erosion 
are usually the clay soils which will not absorb water readily. 
Shallow plowing is practiced and deep plowing will cause more 
water to be absorbed and retained. Most of these soils are lack- 
ing in organic matter. By growing green crops in the winter 



26 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

and turning them under in time for the summer crops, erosion 
will be stopped considerably during the winter and much organic 
matter will be supplied which will make clay soils more porous 
and spongy. Underdrainage prevents erosion by carrying the 
excess of water away gently. 

Many farmers terrace their soil to prevent it from washing 
away. This custom is not as beneficial as deep plowing, plow- 
ing under of green crops, or putting the land in pasture. Many 
of the most successful farmers keep their rows level so when 
it rains the water remains in the furrows instead of washing 
down hill. These furrows will not be straight but answer the 
purpose of saving fertility. 

Drainage. — The loss of fertility by drainage is chiefly concerned 
in the loss of nitrogen. This element to be favorable for most 
plants to assimilate must be in the form of nitrates which are 
readily soluble in water. Phosphoric acid and potash are fixed 
in the soil so that they are insoluble in water and hence very 
inappreciable amounts are lost by drainage.* 

Experiments have shown that the loss of nitrogen by drain- 
age is greater on soils that are idle than on cultivated soils. At 
first thought one would suppose that the loss would be greater 
on the cultivated soils as they are more open and porous, and 
hence permit of a more free passage of water through the soil. 

The excess of nitrates in cultivated soils is carried down in 
the soil but after a rain the capillary water carries it up again 
to the plant roots. Again, the plants are continually using up 
the available supply of nitrogen as fast as it is formed so that 
there is no appreciable excess to be carried away. 

It has been found that about 37 pounds of nitrogen per acre 
are lost from average idle land during a year. This loss of ni- 
trogen is quite large when we consider that 20 bushels of wheat, 
not counting the straw, remove 25 pounds of nitrogen ; 50 bush- 
els of oats, 35 pounds ; and 65 bushels of corn, 40 pounds.* 

Fallowing. — In the arid sections of this country where dry 
farming is followed it is often necessary to let the land remain 
idle for a season to conserve enough moisture to produce profit- 



MAINTAINING SOII^ FERTIUTY 2/ 

able crops. The land is usually plowed two or three times, at 
intervals, or plowed once and harrowed two or three times. 
This procedure keeps down the weeds and increases the moisture 
in the soil. According to King, 203 tons more water was found 
on fallowed land per acre in the spring following the fallow, 
than on land that was not fallowed, and 179 tons more water 
was found on the fallowed field after a crop was harvested 
than on the other field. ^ 

Fallowing increases the supply of available nitrogen as ni- 
trates and in some sections fallowing is practiced for this reason. 
The yield of the crop following fallowing is increased but con- 
siderable humus is lost by being oxidized, and generally more 
nitrates are formed than can be used up by the crop following 
fallowing. Snyder has found by experiments that 590 pounds 
of nitrogen per acre were lost by two years of summer fallow- 
ing, or an amount sufiicient for five wheat crops." At the Roth- 
amstead Experiment Station experiments show that considerable 
more nitrogen was lost from bare soils than from wheat land.* 

On rich soils the losses are greater than on soils deficient 
in organic matter because the oxidation of humus is more rapid. 
It is evident, then, that fallowing increases the pnxluction of 
crops at the expense of a reduction of humus. 

In sections of plentiful rainfall, fallowing is often injurious 
and it should only be practiced in the dry sections where there 
is not enough rainfall to carry away the nitrates and therefore 
not sufficient moisture for the continuous growing of crops. 

Other Ways Nitrogen is lost. — The washing away of nitrogen 
as nitrates is not the only way this element is lost, but con- 
siderable of this valuable constituent escapes in the form of gases. 
This loss as gas is occasioned by denitrification, which reduces 
the nitrates to gases, and the liberation of nitrogen from organic 
matter. The loss on soils rich in organic matter is greater than 
on poor soils. 

Experiments show that in continuous cropping more nitrogen 

1 Roberts, The FerUlity of the Soil. 
" Snvder, Soils and Fertilizers. 



28 



FKRTILITV AND FERTILIZER HINTS 



is usually lost than the crop removes. The following table il- 
lustrates this point. ^ 
Loss OF Nitrogen by Continuous Cropping Per Acre Per Year. 



Name of Crop. 



Wheal 
Corn . . 
Oats . . 
Barley 



Nitrogen removed 
by crop. 
Pounds. 



Nitrogen lost by 

other means. 

Pounds. 



24-5 

56 

46 

30 



146.5 
29 

150 
170 



Total nitrogen re- 
moved and lost. 
Pounds. 



171 

85 
196 
2uO 



The loss of nitrogen by continuous cropping of cotton, corn, 
tobacco and the cereal crops is a very serious one. 

Loss of Phosphoric Acid and Potash. — Although phosphoric acid 
and potash are usually present in the soil as compounds insolu- 
ble in water, nevertheless large quantities are lost every year 
by being carried away with the soil into rivers and other streams. 
Again, traces of phosphoric acid and potash are carried away in 
the soluble form by drainage and although this loss is not large 
per acre it amounts to a great deal in the course of time. 
The Mississippi River deposits in the Gulf of Mexico 3,702,- 
758,400 cubic feet of solid material per year. One cubic foot 
of this solid material weighs about 80 pounds. This material 
is quite rich in potash often containing as high as 0.50 per cent, 
of this constituent. The phosphoric acid content is much lower 
than this figure but is considerable. The rivers that empty 
into the oceans in the northern part of the United States do not 
perhaps carry away so much fertility as the rivers of the far 
south, but the annual loss of the mineral elements carried away 
in streams is appalling. 

One Crop Farming. — The exclusive growing of one crop caused 
more farms to be abandoned in the United States than any other 
practice. The continuous croi:)ping of wheat in the West, to- 
bacco in Kentucky. A'irginia and North Carolina, cotton in the 
South, and corn in the North Central States has always re- 
sulted in the loss of fertility and depletion of the soil. All of 
these crops with the exception of corn are sold from the farm 

' Bill. s> Minnesota Hxperiment Station. 



MAINTAINING SOIL FERTILITY 29 

without the return of any fertiHty. On most of these one crop 
farms no fertihty is put on the soil and the farm is abandoned 
or else artificial (commercial) fertilizers are used. Most of our 
soils in the United States were formerly fertile but the prac- 
tice of growing crops without returning organic matter has re- 
sulted in decreasing the yields on our older cultivated lands. 
Under the subject "fallowing" we learned that it was poor pro- 
cedure to allow the land to lie idle except in dry regions, and 
the best farmers to-day are those that utilize their land con- 
tinually and to the fullest extent. When we visit some of the 
European countries wdiere land has l)een in cultivation for cen- 
turies, we find that these lands are still producing valuable crops, 
and that the yields are as large, if not larger now, than they were 
two centuries ago. This condition exists in Europe because 
fertility has been returned to the soil every year to sustain crops. 
Fortunately, land has been comparatively cheap in the United 
States and when a farm failed to produce paying crops another 
piece of land was secured, and so on. The time has arrived 
when the acquiring of new land for one crop farming is hard to 
obtain at a price within the bounds of such farmers. So it is 
now necessary and more profitable for the farmer to grow other 
crops in conjunction with his money crop. This growing of 
other crops is called diversifying or rotating". 

Diversification and Rotation of Crops. — Diversification is the 
growing of diiTerent crops without any regular or definite sys- 
tem. Rotation of crops is .--pokcn of as growing a certain num- 
ber of crops, in regular order, on the same piece of land. For 
example, a rotation may consist of four crops, corn, oats, wheat 
and clover, and will be called a four year rotation because these 
crops will be grown in order on the same piece of land and take 
four years to complete. A farmer may have 160 acres in his 
rotation and each year 40 acres will be allowed for each of 
the four crops mentioned. Each 40 acres will grow the same 
crop every fifth year and one of the crops every year. The 
terms six-year, five-year, four-year, three-year, two-year, etc., 
are applied to rotations depending upon the time it takes to 
complete them. Rotations taking 15 years to complete are known 



30 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

in Europe but the short rotations of three to six years are found 
to be profitable in the United States. 

Make up of a Rotation. — The crops used in rotations are nat- 
urally selected according to the location, nature of the soil, avail- 
able crops, market prices, kind of farming, insect and plant dis- 
eases, climate, etc. A stock farm would require different crops 
than a tobacco farm; a dairy farm in Wisconsin could not probably 
use the same rotation as a dairy farm in Alabama; two farms in 
the same state with different soil conditions would perhaps se- 
lect different crops for a rotation ; a farm ten miles from a 
market would no doubt find it more practical to grow different 
crops than one i,ooo miles away; and crops would not be chosen 
that insects or plant diseases ruin. 

Reasons for Rotating- Crops. — Some of the reasons for rotating 
crops are : 

1. To keep down weeds. 

2. To gather nitrogen from the air. 

3. To distribute farm labor more evenly. 

4. To eradicate insect or other diseases. 

5. To furnish feed for live stock. 

6. To give the farmer a regular income. 

7. To prevent losses of fertility. 

8. To utilize plant food more evenly. 

9. To include deep and shallow rooted plants. 

10. To save fertilizer expenditure. 

11. To regulate the humus supply. 

12. To conserve moisture in dry sections. 

I. Rotation of Crops Keeps Down Weeds. — It is well known 
that the growing of particular crops is accompanied by certain 
weeds. Those crops that are sown broadcast, as the small grains, 
are more apt to be weedy than cultivated crops as corn, cotton, 
tobacco, potatoes, etc. When crops like wheat, hay, etc.. are 
grown continuously the yields or the quality of the crops are 
often materially reduced by weeds. Intertilled crops as corn, to- 
bacco, cotton, potatoes, etc., when well cultivated, are known as 
"cleaning crops." So in planning a rotation crops should be 



MAINTAINING SOIL FERTILITY 3 1 

selected that will tend to keep down weeds. Cultivated crops 
should be included with those that are sown broadcast. 

2. Legumes are Profitable. — By including legumes as clovers, 
Canada field pea, cowpea, velvet bean, soy bean, etc., in a rotation, 
it is possible to gather considerable nitrogen, which is the most 
expensive fertilizing element to buy, from the air. A crop of 
red clover, one year old, is estimated to contain 20 to 30 pounds 
of nitrogen in the roots, per acre. A crop of cowpeas in Louis- 
iana furnishes 100 pounds of nitrogen per acre. By plowing 
under leguminous crops enough nitrogen is often furnished so 
that the following crop does not require any extra supply, and 
if some nitrogen has to be supplied, that amount is much less 
than it would be were not nitrogen gathering crops utilized. 

The Minnesota Experiment Station^ found a loss of 2,000 
pounds of nitrogen per acre when wheat, barley, corn and oats 
were grown for twelve consecutive years ; two-thirds to three- 
fourths of this amount was not used by the crops but was lost 
in other ways. The Ohio Experiment station- found that there 
was a gain of 300 pounds of nitrogen per acre in excess of what 
the crop utilized when clover was included in five-year rotations, 
covering periods of ten years. When timothy and non-legumes 
were used in place of clover, nitrogen was lost from the soil ; 
the loss of nitrogen from the soil was a little more than that 
removed by the crop. 

3. The Distribution of Farm Labor. — One of the most important 
points in favor of a rotation of crops is that it allows of a more 
even distribution of farm labor. When several crops are grown 
every year the farmer is able to employ help the greater part 
of the year and thus secure more efficient labor at a less cost for 
the work performed than should single crop farming be in 
vogue. 

4. The Checking or Eradication of Insects and Plant Diseases. — 

Many times crops become so badly attacked ]:)y insects, or in- 
fested with plant diseases, that there are no profits and often 
large losses in trying to produce them on the same field con- 

1 Bul.Sg. 
« Bui. no. 



32 



FKRTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 



tinually. A rotation of crops often eliminates such troubles be- 
cause certain insects and plant diseases are only common to one 
particular crop. A good illustration of this is noticeable in the 
growing of cotton. There is an insect called the cotton boll 
weevil, which punctures cotton bolls and destroys the crop. 
Fields that once produced valuable crops of cotton must now 
be planted to other crops which are not injured by this insect. 
5. Rotation Furnishes Feed for Live-stock. — One crop farmers 
are often forced to buy feed for their live-stock. A farmer who 
uses a rotation of crops can ]3lan his rotation so that most of 
the feed will always l>e produced on the farm. In one crop 




Fig. 3 — Oats fit well in rotations and furnish feed for live-stock. 

farming the sale of the crop brings only one value. When 
several crops are grown it is possible to produce feed for live- 
stock and a double value is received for the crop. This double 
value is represented in the feeding value and fertilizing 
value ; the crop is fed and the manure spread on the land. 

6. A Regular Income. — Farmers who raise single crops receive 
their money but once a year and many of these farmers use 



MAINTAINING SOIL FERTILITY 7,^ 

their crops in paying the inerchant for the last year's suppHes. 
They often hve from year to year on the credit basis and pay 
much more for their supphes than the farmer who is able to 
pay for what he gets in cash. In certain sections of this coun- 
try this credit system of farming has proved disastrous because 
one or two bad years caused the loss of the farm. The single 
crop farmer generally has to buy more supplies than the farmer 
who grows several crops. The farmer who practices rotation 
has crops to sell at different times in the year and so has a 
more regular income than the single crop farmer who gets his 
money but once a year. 

7. Preventing Losses of Fertility. — The farmer who rotates his 
crops may sell the crop tliat removes the least fertility from the 
soil and if the money crops remove a great deal of fertility, 
he may regulate his rotation so as to restore this loss cheaply. 

8. A rotation of crops utilizes plant food more evenly than when 
single crops are continually grown. Corn, wheat and other grain 
crops use a great deal of nitrogen and phosphoric acid while 
tobacco and potatoes are heavy potash feeders. By the proper 
selection of crops forming rotation, the plant food may be drawn 
on more evenlv and losses of fertility prevented through leach- 
ing, etc. 

9. Deep and Shallow Rooted Plants. — A rotation of crops has 
an advantage over single crop farming because of the variation 
in depth of root systems of different crops. Alfalfa and corn 
have deep tap roots and obtain food from the subsoil, while 
oats, timothy, blue grass, rye, etc., have shallow roots and feed 
from the upper soil. By alternating deep and shallow rooted 
plants the fertility from the subsoil and surface soil is more 
evenly utilized. Often the surface soil may predominate in ni- 
trogen and phosphoric acid and the subsoil in potash and lime. 
When the fertility is thus distributed the alternating of shallow 
and deep rooted plants is important as the fertility of the subsoil 
is brought to the surface soil by the decay of roots. 

Another advantage of growing deep and shallow rooted plants 
is the improvement of the physical condition of the soil. Deep 
rooted plants tend to make a soil more porous because the de- 



34 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

cay of roots leaves passages in the soil wh'ich aid in draining and 
aerating it. Grass crops tend to make a soil compact, while al- 
falfa, roots, grains and other cultivated crops tend to open up 
the soil. 

A rotation should be selected to keep the soil in good physi- 
cal condition. Sandy soils are improved by crops that compact 
them while clay soils should be made more porous. 

10. Rotation Saves Fertilizer Expenditure. — On some farms that 
formerly used 150 to 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer per 
acre, as high as 1,500 to 2,000 pounds must be used now to give 
the same yields. A proper rotation of crops will save the em- 
ployment of such large quantities of commercial fertilizers. Farm 
manure may be used and commercial fertilizer only applied to 
those crops that are most in need of nourishment. 

11. Rotation of Crops Regulates the Humus Supply. — Some 
crops furnish humus while others tend to deplete the soil of this 
material. Single crop farming is very exhaustive on the humus 
supply of the soil while a rotation of crops should be selected 
to conserve the humus content of a soil. Grass crops tend to 
increase the humus supply, wdiile grain, cotton, tobacco, etc., have 
the opposite effect of consuming humus. The addition of farm 
manure is helpful in supplying humus.* 

12. A Rotation of Crops Conserves Moisture. — In the arid 
regions the conservation of moisture is an important considera- 
tion in planning a rotation. Heavy moisture consuming crops 
should not be planted in succession in sections of small rainfall, 
but heavy consuming and light consuming moisture crops should 
be so grown as to conserve the moisture supply.* 

System of Farming. — The loss of fertility sold from the farm 
depends upon the kinds of crops produced and sold. When 
live-stock, butter and milk are sold there is less fertility lost than 
from common farm crops.* 



CHAPTER IV. 

FARM MANURES. 

Farm manure has been used for centurit's in restoring fer- 
tility to the soil. It is the oldest and one of the most important 
of our fertilizers. It is formed from vegetable and animal sub- 
stances and naturally should prove of great value. In some sec- 
tion of this country farm manure is wasted, but the value of this 
material is generally becoming better understood and is more 
carefully saved than formerly, especially in the older farming 
regions. 

Kinds of Manure. — When there is a great deal of straw or hay 
in manure, it is said to be coarse. It is termed stable manure 
when it is accumulated in stables and contains all the solid and 
liquid portions. Barnyard manure is a name applied to manure 
which is subject to exposure of rains and sun and may be com- 
posed of pure solid excrement, or excrement and bedding. 

Conditions Affecting the Value of Manure. — There are many 
conditions which affect the value of manure. 

1. The age of the animal. 

2. The use of the animal. 

3. The kind and amount of bedding used. 

4. The kind of animal. 

5. The nature and amount of feed used. 

6. The care, preservation and use of the manure. 

1. The age of the animal iniluences the value of manure. Ma- 
nure from young animals is not so rich in the fertilizer constitu- 
ents, nitrogen, phos])horic acid and potash as that from mature 
animals, even when the same kinrl of feed is used. Young ani- 
mals require and retain nitrogen and phosphoric acid for growth, 
while mature animals use these constituents for maintaining the 
functions of the body and for repairing broken down tissues, 
after which they are cast off in the manure. 

2. The use of the animal influences the value of manure. Milch 
cows return less of the fertilizing constituents in the feed than 
other domestic farm animals. Fattening pigs return less than 



36 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

fattening sheep and fattening sheep less than fattening oxen. 
Horses return the same relative amounts from the feed whether 
at work or at rest.* 

3. The Kind and Amount of Bedding Used, — Bedding besides 
afifecting the value of manure renders stables more sanitary. It 
provides comfort for the animal, makes the manure lighter and 
easier to handle, absorbs the liquids, lessens fermentation and 
improves the texture of the manure. 

Straw is the most common bedding used and is well suited for 
this purpose, because it is largely made up of cellulose which is 
a good absorber on account of its hollow structure.* There is 
a difference in the composition of straws, but they all contain 
a high potash content. The nitrogen and phosphoric acid are 
rather low and when large amounts of straw are employed the 
fertilizing value of the manure is naturally lowered. 

Leaves, — Dried autumn leaves are often gathered and used as 
bedding. They are not as valuable as straw as they do not fer- 
ment very rapidly and are liable to cause acidity in the manure. 

Sawdust is often used as bedding and it is much inferior to 
straw and dried leaves from a fertility standpoint. It decom- 
poses very slowly in the soil. However, this material is a good 
absorber of the liquid portions and makes a good bedding when 
it can be obtained cheaply. 

Shavings are sometimes used as bedding and possess about the 
same properties as sawdust. 

Peat when dried is a good material to use in stables as it is 
an excellent absorber. It absorbs not only the liquid portions of 
the manure but also the nitrogen gases evolved, and renders the 
stable free from foul odor. It in itself contains considerable 
organic matter which is beneficial and it is readily fermented in 
the soil. It is a good material to use in conjunction with straw. 
The use of peat as bedding increases the nitrogen content of the 
manure. The nitrogen percentage in peat varies a great deal but 
it usually approximates i to 1.5 per cent. 

Absorptive Power of Bedding, — According to Snyder,' the ab- 
sorptive power of different kinds of bedding are : 

' Soils and Fertilizers. 



FARM MANURES 



37 



Per cent, 
of water 
absorbed. 

Fine cut straw 30.0 

Coarse uncut straw 18.0 

Peat 60.0 

Sawdust 45.0 

Snyder says : "The proportion of absorbents in manure ranges 
from a fifth to a third of the total weight of the manure." 

The following experiment shows the absorptive power of straw 
and peat in two similar stables carrying the same stock, in one 
of which straw was used and the other peat. 

Ammonia in Stable Per Million of Air.' 



Litter 


I.St 

day 


2d 
day 


.^d 
day 


4th 
day 


5th 
day 


6th 
day 


7th 
day 


Straw 


.0012 


.0028 


.0045 


.0081 


■0153 
trace 


.0168 
.001 




Peat moss 


.017 



4. The Kind of Manure. — Manure from different kinds of ani- 
mals varies in value. 

Horse Manure. — The manure voided by the horse is rich in 
nitrogen and not so finely divided as the manure from cows, 
sheep, etc. This is due to the horse only having one compart- 
ment in its stomach and therefore the feed, especially coarse feed 
as hay, etc., is less broken up and digested. Horse manure is 
generally comparatively dry and hard to incorporate with bed- 
ding. On this account, and because of its coarse nature and 
chemical composition, fermentation readily sets in and consid- 
erable nitrogen is lost unless the fermentation is stopped. When 
fermentation is allowed to continue the value of horse manure 
is very much decreased. Boussingault found by experiment that 
when fermentation was allowed to continue, one-half of the nitro- 
gen was lost from the fresh manure.* 

The liquid portion of horse manure contains a great deal more 
nitrogen that the solid. The liquid portion of horse manure 
contains very little phosphoric acid. 

Cow manure is much colder than horse manure and so a fine 
combination results when it is mixed with horse manure ; the 

' Hall, Fertilizers and Manures. 



38 FERTlIvITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

fermentation of the horse manure is stopped and the nitrogen 
saved, and the mixture is better than cow manure alone. Cow 
manure contains more water than horse manure due perhaps to 
the large amount of water drank by this class of animal. Cow 
manure does not ferment rapidly and when dry decomposes very 
slowly in the soil. It is estimated that 6 to 10 pounds of straw 
are necessary to absorb cow manure, depending upon the amount 
of liquids voided. 

The nitrogen content is present in greatest amount in the liquids 
while there is little phosphoric acid present in this portion of 
cow manure. 

Hog Manure. — The composition of hog manure is quite variable 
depending upon the feed consumed. When tankage and other 
highly nitrogenous feeds are employed the manure is rich, but 
when feeds containing small amounts of fertilizing constituents 
are used, the manure is not so valuable. Hog manure contains 
a high percentage of water and is slow to decompose. It is es- 
timated that 4 to 8 pounds of straw are adequate for absorbing 
pig manure. 

The liquid portion of hog manure contains more phosphoric 
acid and the solids more potash than horse or cow manure. 
As previously mentioned, the nitrogen content of the liquid por- 
tion of hog manure depends upon the nature of the feed. Some- 
times the nitrogen will reach 1.5 per cent, in the liquid portion. 
The liquid portion is higher in water than manure from other 
farm live-stock. 

Sheep Manure. — The manure from sheep is more valuable than 
that from other farm animals. On account of its being dry and 
rich in nitrogen it ferments rapidly although not so quickly as 
horse manure. The slower action is perhaps due to its more 
compact mechanical condition. Losses of nitrogen in sheep ma- 
nure are apt to occur unless the manure is well taken care of. 
Both the solids and liquids of sheep manure run higher in nitro- 
gen that the manure from other farm animals, and the water con- 
tent is lower. The phosphoric acid content of the solids is also 
high and that of the liquids appreciable.* 



FARM MAM'RKS 



39 



Hen manure contains its nitrogen in a quickly available form 
and unless carefully preserved fermentation sets in and drives 
ofif considerable of this valuable constituent as ammonia. Lime 
should not be used where the manure is kept as it hastens the 
Hberation of ammonia. The per cent, of nitrogen in hen manure 
depends a great deal on the kind of feed consumed. Hens pro- 
duce, per i.ooo pounds live weight, about 35 pounds of manure 
per day, and about one bushel of manure is produced by a hen 
per year. Hen manure approximates sheep manure in compo- 
sition. It is a valuable manure l)ecause it acts quickly.* 

Analyses of Farm Manures.' 



Kind of maiuire 


Water 
Per cent. 


Nitrogen 
Per cent. 


Potash 
Per cent. 


Phosphoric 

acid 
Per cent. 


Cattle (solid fresh excrement) 

Cattle (fresh urine) 

Hen manure ( fresh ) 

Horse (solid fresh excrement ) 


73-27 


0.29 

0. s8 

1.63 
0.44 
1-55 
0.55 
1-95 
0.50 
0.60 
0.43 


0.10 
0.49 
0.85 

"-35 
1.50 
0.15 
2.26 
0.60 
0.13 
0.83 


0.17 

1-54 
0.17 


Sheep (solid fresh excrement) 


0.31 

O.OI 


Stable manure (mixed ) 

Swine (solid fresh excrement ) 


0.30 
0.41 
0.07 







How to Calculate the Amount of Manure Produced.— A method 
used for determining the amount of manure produced by ani- 
mals is to multiply the amount of dry matter in the feed con- 
sumed bv 2-^ for ^ cow, 2.1 for a horse and 1.8 for a sheep. 
A horse that consumes feed containing 25 pounds of dry matter 
per day would void 25 X 2.1 = 52.5 pounds of manure a day. 
Add to this the amount of bedding used and you will arrive at 
the total amount of mamn-e. 

5. The nature and amount of feed used afifects the value of the 
manure. The richer the feed the higher the fertilizing value of 
the manure. Coarse feeds like hay, straw, etc., produce less 
valuable manure than concentrated feeds like linseed meal, gluten 
meal, cotton-seed meal, etc.* 

' Fletcher, Soils. 
4 



40 I-ERTILITV AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

Lasting Effect of Manure. — The lasting effect of manure is 
shown by the experiments conducted at Rothamstead. A plot of 
grass land received applications of 14 tons of manure per acre 
for 8 consecutive years and then the applications were discontin- 
ued. During the first year after the discontinuance of manure 
the yield was twice that of an unmanured plot. Since that time 
the yield on the manured plot has slowly decreased until at the 
end of 40 years the excess has been about 15 per cent, greater 
than the yield of the unmanured plot. 

An experiment was conducted with barley. Three plots were 
employed. One plot received 14 tons of manure per acre since 
1852, another received 14 tons of manure per acre for 20 years 
and then the applications were stopped, and the third has been 
unmanured since 1852. 

The experiment showed that the continuously manured plot 
had the largest yields but the plot that was measured for 20 
years is still producing crops at least 40 per cent, greater than 
the unmaimred plot. 

The results in these experiments would not be found to be so 
apparent in actual farming, as the soils that were used for these 
experiments were more exhausted than the farmer would use. 
However, the results are interesting as they .show the almost 
permanent effect of farm manure on soils." 

6, The Care, Preservation and Use of Manure. — From the fore- 
going pages it is very evident that the comppsition of manure 
and the amounts produced by dift'erent kinds of animals are ex- 
ceedingly variable. It is also known that a regular value for this 
product cannot be estimated from its chemical composition. 

"Waste of Manure. — In some sections of the United States farm 
manure is dumped into streams, burned, buried in holes in the 
ground, or allowed to remain in large piles in some uncultivated 
place. The soils in many of such sections are fertile enough to 
produce profitable crops but it seems very wasteful to throw 
away such valuable fertilizer. 

Leaching. — When a manure heap is exposed to the washing of 
rain and the solutions allowed to wash away, the value of the 
manure is decreased. The soluble plant food elements are washed 



FARM MANURES 



41 



away togetlier with more or less of the manure itself. Leaching 
is one of the most important subjects to consider in the care and 
preservation of manure because it is the source of one of the 
greatest losses in this valuable product. Experiments have been 
conducted to show the g-reat losses that occur bv leaching. Horse 




Fig. /(. —The manure from live-stock sliou'.d be carefully saved. 

manure suffers larger losses than mixed horse and cow manure, 
or cow manure.* 

Fermentations. — There are certain bacteria that produce fer- 
mentations in manure piles and liberate nitrogen as gas causing 
large losses in manure. These fermentations are brought about 
by two classes of organi.sms ; aerobic bacteria and anaerobic bac- 
teria. 

I. The aerobic bacteria require oxygen to be active and the 
anaerobic bacteria are only active in the absence of oxygen. On 
the outside of manure heaps where air circulates, the aerobic 
bacteria work while in the interior of the heaps where no air 



42 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

can penetrate the anaerobic fermentation takes place. The aerobic 
bacteria convert the nitrogen present in the organic matter of 
the manure, into ammonia, in which form it passes off into the 
atmosphere. Because of the great amount of carbon dioxide 
formed during this action some of the ammonia is converted into 
carbonate of ammonia which is also volatile. 

2. The anaerobic bacteria convert ammonia salts to nitrogen. 
Some of these bacteria have the power of reducing nitrates to 
nitrites, and to ammonia. The anaerobic bacteria do not bring 
about such losses as the aerobic bacteria, so it is important to 
keep the manure heap well compacted to prevent the action of 
the aerobic organisms. 

Keep the Manure Moist. — Dry manure ferments more readily 
than wet manure. To prevent active fermentation the manure 
heap should be kept moist. It is not necessary to add enough 
water to leach it. Water excludes the air and promote anaerobic 
action which is beneficial.* 

The temperature in fermenting horse, sheep and poultry ma- 
nure often goes higher than 150° Fahrenheit (65° Centigrade). 
The highest temperature is usually near the surface as the fer- 
mentation is most active there. 

Composting manure is helpful in increasing the availability of 
that plant food. It also kills many weed seeds. There is less 
loss of plant food when the manure is applied to the soil fresh, 
than when allowed to rot. It is not generally convenient to haul 
the manure from the stable to the land as other work is of 
more importance, so that the manure has to be stored until 
the regular farm work becomes slack. When manure is com- 
posted it should be kept compact and moist and the heap should 
be shaped to shed water. A layer of earth on the top of the 
manure compost will tend to absorb some of the gases. 

Voelcker^ gives the following as the composition of fresh and 
rotted manure. 

I Ivyon and Fippin, Soils. 



Farm manures 



43 



Water 

Soluble organic matter. . . • 
Soluble organic nitrogen- • 
Soluble inorganic matter. • 
Insoluble organic matter- . 
Insoluble inorganic matter 



Fresh 


Rotted 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


66.17 


75-42 


2.48 


3-71 


0.15 


0.30 


1-54 


1.47 


2576 


12.82 


4.05 


6.58 



It is seen that manure that is composted contains the fertilizer 
elements in a more available form than in fresh manure. 

The organic matter is decreased by allowing manure to rot. 
Snyder^ says : ''A ton of composted manure is obtained from 
2,800 pounds of stable manure." There are of course some 
losses of nitrogen in composting manure, the extent of these 
losses depending upon the compactness and dryness of the ma- 
nure. 

The principal benefits derived from composting manure are ; 
the improvement of the physical condition, and decomposition 
takes place in the manure that ordinarily would have to be 
performed in the soil. 

Sometimes manure is composted with earth, sod, leaves and 
wastes from the farm. 

Store Manure Under Cover. — Whenever manure is left out of 
doors exposed to the rain losses occur. Many farmers preserve 
manure in different w'ays. Some use covered yards where the 
stock are allowed to exercise and the manure is kept compact 
by the tramping of the animals. In this practice bedding should 
be used to absorb all of the liquids and to allow the animals 
to be comfortable. The site should be well drained and kept 
dry. The manure from sheep, hogs, young stock, etc., is often 
preserved in this way. Some farmers keep the manure in cel- 
lars under the stable. The fermentation of manure in the cellar 
of a stable is liable to produce foul odors and is especially ob- 
jectionable in dairy barns. Another method of storing ina- 
nure that is used in the older farming sections, especially in 
dairies, is to build covered cement pits just outside the barn and 
dump the manure from trucks. The liquid portions are drained 

' Soils and Fertilizers. 



44 



FEKTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 



to these pits by pipes. It may not always be possible for a farm- 
er to build a covered cement pit but he can always afford to 
put a roof over the manure, for the cost of the shed will soon be 
returned in the increased value of the manure. 

The following table, the work of Biernatski, shows the com- 
position of uncovered and cov'fered manure. 



Water 
Per cent. 



Uncovered manure 83.78 

Covered manure 76.54 



Nitrogen 
Per cent. 



0.47 
0.67 



Phosphoric 

acid 
Per cent 



0.26 
0.31 



Potash 
Per cent. 



0.43 
0.76 



Preservatives. — In the destruction of the nitrogen present in 
organic matter in manure, the aerobic bacteria produce ammonia 
and some of this gas unites with the carbon dioxide evolved and 
forms ammonium carbonate, a volatile compound. By adding 
moist gypsum (land plaster) to manure, the ammonium carbo- 
nate is converted into ammonium sulphate, a compound that does 
not pass away in the atmosphere. This latter compound is solu- 
ble in water and when manure is exposed to the leaching of rains, 
it is useless to employ gypsum. Gypsum is perfectly safe to use 
because it does not injure the feet of animals. Lime is objec- 
tionable because it liberates ammonia. Kainit, superphosphate 
and ground rock phosphate are sometimes used with good suc- 
cess, as they absorb nitrogen. These preservatives may be scat- 
tered at the rate of about one pound to an animal. They may also 
be economically used on covered manure heaps. HalP estimates 
that it will take about 100 pounds of gypsum per ton of manure 
to absorb the gases, as some of it is acted upon by the potassium 
carbonate in the urine. 

Physical Effects of Manure. — Manure has a greater value than 
is represented by its chemical composition. It improves the phy- 
sical condition of the soil by. 

1. Producing a better moisture condition. 

2. Producing a better texture. 

3. Preventing mechanical losses by winds. 

4. Benefiting grass land. 
' Fertilizers and Manures. 



FARM MANURES 45 

1. Manure Produces a Better Moisture Condition. — Manure when 
added to soils increases the water hokhng power of those soils 
because of its humus content. Humus absorbs water readily. 
A soil that has had manure added to it will resist drought better 
than one where there is little or no humus. During a heavy 
rainfall the soil with humus will absorb a great deal more water 
and give it up more gradually than one without humus."'' Manure 
helps to conserve the moisture supply of soil during dry seasons. 

2. Manure Improves the Texture of the Soil. — Manure has a 
very beneficial effect on most soils in improving the texture. 
The addition of manure to sandy soils makes them more binding 
and increases their water holding capacity. Clay soils are made 
m.ore porous by the addition of manure. Some soils may pro- 
duce good crops during favorable seasons without much organic 
matter but when the season is bad it is almost impossible to get 
the soil in good mechanical condition for crops. 

Number of M.\ngoi:.d Plants Taking ioo as the Possible." 
Average of 7 years, 1901-7. 



Farm manure, minerals 
and nitrate of soda 


Minerals and 
nitrate of soda 


Minerals and 
rape cake 


69 


62 


83 



The plot receiving rape cake, which was applied at the rate 
of 2,000 pounds per year, shows the best results, but rape cake 
like manure supplies a great deal of humus. A better stand was 
produced with farm manure than with the artificial fertilizer. 

3. Manure Prevents Mechanical Losses by Winds. — The losses 
occasioned by heavy winds on certain soils are sometimes more 
than one would expect. Dry light soils devoid of organic mat- 
ter are easily blown away by heavy winds. The addition of ma- 
nure to such soils tends to keep them moist and prevents such 
loss. 

4. Manure Benefits Grass Land. — Manure benefits grass land 
not only by supplying plant food and increasing the moisture hold- 
ing capacity, but also in protecting this crop from the frosts 

1 Hall, Fertilizers and Manures. 



46 



FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 



of early spring, by the mulch produced. It is noticed that grass 
that has been manured in the fall has an earlier growth in the 
spring than such lands unmanured. 

Bacteriological Effects of Manure. — Manure when added to the 
soil aids the growth of bacteria that render plant food available. 
It also increases the number of these bacteria and supplies food 
for them, and fermentations are promoted that are very helpful 
in the production of crops. 

Time to Apply Manure. — In order to get all the value from farm 
manure it is better to apply it while fresh than when rotted. 
Manure in rotting loses some of its fertility. The Ohio Experi- 
ment Station have conducted experiments with fresh manure and 
exposed yard manure with the following crop returns for ten 
vears. 





Amount 

applied 

per acre 

tons. 


Yield per acre. 




Corn 
bushels. 


Wheat 
bushels. 


Hay 

pouncls. 




8 
8 


16.03 
22.24 


8 21 

9 73 


6q8 
1,280 







The manure was applied to clover sod which was plowed under 
and followed by a three year rotation of corn, wheat and clover 
without the addition of any more manure. The yields favor the 
fresh manure with an increase of 6.21 bushels of corn, 1.52 
bushels of wheat and 582 pounds of hay. 

Sometimes it is not practicable to apply manure while fresh 
as some crops, especially the quick growing market garden crops, 
require plant food that is available and so prefer rotted manure. 

It is common in this covmtry to apply fresh manure to grass 
land in the fall and turn it under in the spring. This practice 
is beneficial in that it supplies a great deal of organic matter for 
the succeeding crop. Corn is a crop that thrives on fresh manure 
and so it is well to apply manure in this condition to corn and 
follow this crop with one that prefers rotted manure. 

Amount of Manure to Apply. — The amount of manure to ap- 
ply depends upon the fertility and texture of the soil. Soils 



FARM MANURES 47 

that already have considerable fertility sometimes require a light 
application of manure to improve their texture. Large applica- 
tions of manure on such soils would not be profitable. Most 
farmers use too much on iheir land at one time. Frequent light 
applications are more beneficial than large amounts applied at 
long intervals, as they keep the soil in an even state of fertility 
and losses by volatilization of nitrogen as gases and leaching of 
the soluble elements are less. Experiments show that small ap- 
plications give greater percentage increase than large applications 
although large applications give larger yields. 

Sometimes manure does not furnish sufificient plant food to 
satisfy the needs of the crop. An addition of some commercial 
fertilizer which supplies the necessary fertilizer constituents is 
beneficial in such cases to supplement the manure. 

How to Apply Manure. — It is best to spread the manure over 
the land as it is hauled. Some farmers dump the manure in little 
piles over the field and leave it in this condition for two or three 
months. When fermentations take place in these piles nitrogen 
passes ofl: in the air. This practice is objectionable because the 
soil under and around the piles gets most of the available plant 
food that is leached out, and the other soil does not receive its 
share. The result is that the succeeding crops grow uneven or in 
patches. There is no objection to dumping manure in small 
piles over the field if it is spread immediately. The hauling of 
manure to the field and hand spreading it is perhaps the common 
method used in this country. It is difficult to spread manure 
evenly in this way and after the manure is distributed, a brush 
drag should be used to scatter it more evenly. Manure spreaders 
distribute manure more evenly than any of the other methods in 
use. They are labor saving machines and although they usually 
carry less per unit of draft, they are considered a good invest- 
ment for those who have much manure to spread. A ton of 
manure spread uniformly gives better results than a larger amount 
applied unevenly. 



CHAPTER V. 

HIGH GRADE NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER MATERIALS. 

Nitrogen is the most important element to consider in the study 
of fertilizers. It is the most expensive and most fugitive of the 
essential elements. Nitrogen usually costs about three times as 
much as phosphoric acid or potash. To be in a form available 
as plant food it must be as nitrates which are readily soluble in 
water. The air is made up of nitrogen, carbon and oxygen and 
although plants utilize the carbon and oxygen most of them do 
not seem to be able to use the nitrogen. There is one class of 
plants, the legumes (peas, beans, peanuts, alfalfa, clover, etc.) 
of which we have spoken, that can utilize this elementary nitro- 
gen but most of our other plants do not possess this power. 
The organic matter, which is made up of animal and vegetable 
matter, serves as a source of nitrogen, but plants cannot use it 
in this form. It is understood then that there is plenty of un- 
usuable nitrogen in the air and in soils rich in organic matter, but 
it has no direct plant food value in these forms until it is prepared 
by electrical means, oxidized and acted upon by certain bacteria. 

Forms of Nitrogen. — Nitrogen exists in different forms in the 
many substances containing it. Not including the nitrogen in the 
air we may classify these forms into four groups, namely: 

1. Organic nitrogen, which is found in vegetable and animal 

substances, generally as protein. 

2. Ammonia nitrogen, which is found in ammonium sulphate. 

3. Nitrate nitrogen, which is found in nitrate of soda (Chile 

saltpeter) and nitrate of potash. 

4. Cyanamid nitrogen, which is taken from the air by electrical 

means and combined with calcium, carbon, etc. 

Of these four forms all are soluble in water except organic 
nitrogen. The organic form is included in many substances, 
both animal and vegetable, while the remaining forms are found 
principally in a few products. 

The Meaning of the Form of Nitrogen. — The fertilizer mater- 
ials furnishing nitrogen contain this element in different forms. 



HIGH GRADE NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER MATERIALS 49 

We have said that the substances containing nitrate nitrogen, am- 
monia nitrogen and cyanamid nitrogen are sohible in water and 
the organic nitrogen is insohible in water. The nitrogen as ni- 
trates is always the same and of equal value no matter from what 
substance it is derived. The ammonia nitrogen is also of equal 
value and equal quantities of it are as good no matter wdiat 
material it comes from. The soluble nitrogen from ammonium 
sulphate, however, is not the same as the soluble nitrogen from 
nitrate of soda and the insoluble nitrogen of organic materials 
is not the same or of equal value. Therefore the source of 
soluble and insoluble nitrogen makes a difference in value of the 
forms of nitrogen. The solubility of nitrogenous substances in- 
tiuences the availability, or the rate with which the nitrogen in 
a suitable form is supplied so that the plant can assimilate it, 
to some extent. 

The organic form of nitrogen is so called because the nitrogen 
is combined with other elements as hydrogen, carbon and oxygen 
in organic matter. Organic nitrogen is different in the various 
substances. Some animal and vegetable materials are quite rich 
in nitrogen while others do not contain much and are perhaps 
not so valuable. Some organic substances may contain consid- 
erable amounts of nitrogen but in such a locked-up state that they 
are undesirable as plant food. 

When a substance gives up its nitrogen as nitrates readily we 
say that the nitrogen is in a form that is active ; it is quick acting, 
quickly available, readily assimilated, etc. When the nitrogen is 
locked-up we use the terms slow acting, slowly available, etc. 
There are many degrees of availability of the different forms of 
nitrogen and they range from the very quick acting of the soluble 
materials to the organic materials that may take two or three 
years or even longer before they give up their nitrogen for 
plants to use as food. There are many organic substances that 
contain nitrogen, but in such small amounts, or in such a locked- 
up condition that they cannot be used profitably in the manufac- 
ture of fertilizers. 

The principal sources of organic nitrogen will now be discussed. 



50 FERTIUTY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

The Vegetable Substances. 

Cotton-seed meal is one of the most important sources of 
vegetable nitrogen. It is usually a bright yellow product with 
a nutty odor when fresh.* 

For the year 1908, 929,287,467 pounds of cotton-seed meal 
were manufactured in the United States.^ 

Yields of Products from a Ton of Cotton-Seed.^ 

Pounds 

Linters 23 

Hulls 943 

Crude oil ( 37.6 gals. ) 282 

Cake or meal 713 

Waste 39 

Total 2,000 

Composition of Cotton-seed Meal. — The composition of cotton- 
seed meal varies a great deal. When it is not adulterated with 
hulls the variation in composition may be due to the season, the 
nature of the soil and the climate. Seed raised on high land is 
usually richer in nitrogen than seed raised on low land. The 
Texas meals seem to run high in nitrogen. In the past few 
years many of the manufacturers have been introducing ground 
cotton-seed hulls into their meal which of course lowers the value 
of this product. Cotton-seed meal is in great demand as feed 
for live-stock and the bright yellow meals are used for this pur- 
pose. The darker meals are not so valuable as feed and are 
usually sold for fertilizer. The dark color may be due to over- 
cooking, to fermentation, or to storing in a wet or damp place. 
If there is no loss. of nitrogen, the product is not injured for 
fertilizing purposes.* 

Value of Cotton-seed Meal. — Large quantities of this product 
are used in the South where it is especially suitable for the long 
growing crops as it supplies plant food during the whole season. 

An insect, called the boll weevil, is reducing the acreage and 
yield of this crop. If the entomologists do not find a way of 

' 1908 Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
'^ Lamborn, Cotton-Seed Products. 



HIGH GRADE NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER MATERIALS 5 1 

checking this pest the use of cotton-seed meal will be much less 
in the future. 

A physical examination will not always indicate its fertilizing 
value. Many of the meals have the hulls so finely ground that it 
is impossible to detect the extent of their presence with the naked 




Fig. s- — A field of cotton, the source of cotton-seed meal. 

eye. The color of a meal is not always an indication of its 
nitrogen content. Always purchase cotton-seed meal under a 
strict guarantee as this product is variable in composition and a 
physical examination of it does not show its fertilizing value. 
Linseed meal is another vegetable compound used for fertiliz- 
ing purposes. It is a by-product in the manufacture of oil from 
flaxseed. There are two classes of linseed meal, namely, the old 
and new process meal. The old process meal is obtained by press- 
ing out the oil from the cold or warmed crushed flaxseeds. In 
the new process the oil is extracted with naphtha and the naphtha 
driven ofif by steam. The old process and new process meal 



5- FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

average about 5.3 per cent, nitrogen, 1.25 per cent, potash and 
1.6 per cent, phosphoric acid. Linseed meal is not used ex- 
tensively as fertilizer because of the high price it commands as 
feed for live-stock. 

Castor pomace is the remaining product from the extraction 
of oil from the castor bean. It is poisonous to live-stock and 
therefore is used for fertilizer. It averages about 5.5 per cent, 
nitrogen, 1.8 per cent, phosphoric acid and i per cent, potash. 
As it decomposes rapidly in the soil it makes an excellent fer- 
tilizer.* 

The Chief Animal Substances. 

Dried blood is obtained from the large packing houses of the 
United States. There are tv^^o kinds on the market, namely, red 
and black blood. The red blood is obtained by drying blood very 
carefully with superheated steam and hot air. Should the blood 
be dried at too high a temperature it chars and turns black. If 
the blood is injured in any way it is sold as black blood. Red 
blood averages about 13.5 per cent, nitrogen with traces of phos- 
phoric acid while black blood is a more variable product but 
usually contains 12 per cent, nitrogen and i to 3 per cent, phos- 
phoric acid, depending upon the nature of the impurities. When 
bone is present the product contains sometimes as high as 4 per 
cent, phosphoric acid. Red blood is not used for fertilizer be- 
cause it commands too high a price for other purposes. Both red 
and black blood are ground and sold in a powdery condition. 
Black blood is a very valuable nitrogenous fertilizer which is 
in great demand and is very popular with the manufacturers of 
fertilizers in satisfying their formulas. It is one of the principal 
organic fertilizers used by manufacturers in the North. It is 
not used directly to any extent by farmers as the manufacturers 
purchase most of it. It is in a fine mechanical condition and is 
easy to mix with other materials. As plant food it gives ex- 
cellent results as it decays very rapidly thus furnishing nourish- 
ment during the early stages of the growing period. Sometimes 
salt and slaked lime are put in blood. It is very high in avail- 
ability being somewhat quicker than cotton-seed meal. 



HIGH GR.\DE NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER MATERIALS 53 

Tankage is composed entirely of animal matter. It is the re- 
fuse from slaughter houses and consists of meat, bone, etc. (from 
which the fat has been extracted) and more or less dried blood. 
Animals condemned as unsuitable for food are made into tankage. 

The phosphoric acid in tankage is slowly available as it is sup- 
plied principally by ground bone. The nitrogen is derived prin- 
cipally from meat and blood. When the percentage of bone 
is large, the phosphoric acid is high, and the nitrogen content is 
low. and when there is a.i excess of blood and meat, the ni- 
trogen is high and the phosphoric acid low. 

Grades of Tankage. — There are several grades of tankage found 
on our markets. The most popular nitrogenous grades are those 
containing 8, 9, and 10 per cent, ammonia which are equivalent 
to 6.58, 7.41. and 8.23 per cent, nitrogen, and 6.56, 7.64, 10, and 
12 per cent, bone phosphate of lime, which are equivalent to 
3> 3-5> 4-58< and 5.5 per cent, phosphoric acid. There are many 
other grades of tankage sold that carry more phosphoric acid and 
less nitrogen, but these are classed as bone tankages and will 
be later described under phosphates. 

Concentrated tankage is still another grade and the richest 
of all since it contains more nitrogen and is a more uniform 
product. It is made by evaporating, wastes that contain animal 
matter in solution, or in other words the tank water. It us- 
ually contains 10 to 12 per cent, nitrogen and small amounts 
of phosphoric acid. 

Variation in Tankage. — Because of the great variation in the 
chemical composition of tankage (no two shipments hardly ever 
run alike, for the manufacturers cannot seem to control the com- 
position of their output on account of the variation in the by- 
products), great care must be exercised in purchasing. The prod- 
uct should be bought on its chemical composition and not nec- 
essarily on its guarantee, for it may or may not reach its stated 
composition. Hoof meal and hair are sometimes present in 
shipments of tankage. For sugar-cane, cotton-seed meal has 
been found to be more valuable than tankage of the same ni- 
trogen content. Nevertheless, tankage is a valuable fertilizer 



54 FliRTlI.ITY AND FfiRTlLIZKR HINTS 

and its value depends a great deal on its nitrogen content. It is 
suitable for crops having a long growing season. 

About 1,000,000 tons of tankage and dried blood are produced 
annually. 

Azotin, meat meal, flesh meal, dried meat, animal matter and 
ammonite are practically the same product, but are by-products 
from different manufacturing establishments. IVIost of this prod- 
uct comes from the slaughtering houses and beef extract factor- 
ies. It is a rich organic fertilizer containing about 13 per cent, 
nitrogen, but it may run higher or lower than this depending 
upon its purity. This product is made up generally of the flesh 
refuse of dead animals from which the fat has been extracted 
and the remains dried and ground. It is different ivoni tankage 
because it does not contain bones. 

Steamed horn and hoof meal averages about 12 to 15 per cent, 
nitrogen and is principally marketed by the large packing houses. 
The choice horns and hoofs are sold for the manufacture of 
Inittons, combs, and novelties, and the imperfect and oft'-col- 
ored horns antl hoofs are treated with steam, under high pres- 
sure, which renders the nitrogen more available and permits of 
the product being ground to a fine powder. Horn and hoof 
meal was not formerly thought much of, but since it has been 
subjected to superheated steam the product has been much 
sought after b}' the manufacturers of fertilizers. It is produced 
only in limited quantities and is not as valuable as dried blood, 
but has a fairly high degree of availability, according to recent 
investigations.* 

Dry Ground Fish. — This is also called fish scrap and fish guano 
and has a yellow color. It is obtained principally from canning 
factories where the refuse as bones, skin, heads, fins, tails, in- 
testines, etc., of edible fish are saved, dried and ground. Estab- 
lishments expressing oil and manufacturing glue from inedible 
fish as Menhaden, furnish a considerable supply. The average 
annual catch of Menhaden is about 600,000,000 fish, which pro- 
duce 70,000 tons of fish scrap and 35,000 barrels of oil. Thirty 
factories with 70 steamers are engaged in this industry and the 



HIGH GRADE NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER MATERIALS 55 

largest catch was in 1903 when 1,000,000,000 fish were caught.' 
The whale bone interests, after the bones are removed and the 
oil extracted from whales, utilize the remainder in the prepara- 
tion of dry ground fisR. 

Dried ground fish is variable in composition depending upon 
the nature of the materials of which it is made. The greater the 
percentage of bone, the higher is the phosphoric acid content and 
the lower the nitrogen, and the less bone, the higher the nitrogen 
and the lower the phosphoric acid. The amount of oil left also 
influences the composition. It usually ranges from 7.5 to 10.5 
per cent, nitrogen, 5.7 to 16 per cent, phosphoric acid, with an 
average of 8.5 per cent, nitrogen and 9 per cent, phosphoric acid. 
It is a popular and valuable fertilizer and large quantities are 
used in the North. Most sections of the South are too far away 
from where it is manufactured to prevent using it at its market 
value. Dry ground fish is readily decomposed in the soil and is 
therefore quick acting. It is not considered as valuable as dried 
blood. 

King crab is obtained on the Atlantic coast and is dried and 
ground, in which state it is utilized by fertilizer manufacturers. 
It contains about 10 per cent, nitrogen and is similar to dried 
ground fish in fertilizer properties. 

Guano, or natural guano, is another important source of ni- 
trogen. It was used as early as the 12th century in Peru. On 
the west coast of South America there are thousands of sea fowl. 
These birds have roosting and breeding places along the unin- 
habited portions of the coast and many of them make their home 
on the smaller islands ofif the coast of Peru and also on the main- 
land, because of the abundant supply of fish in that region. The 
excrement voided by these birds is rich in nitrogen and phosphoric 
acid because their food, which is fish, is rich in these constit- 
uents. During breeding seasons they literally cover these is- 
lands and the young birds after they are hatched are fed on 
fish until they are able to fly. The excreta from the old 
and the young birds, feathers, and the remains of the young birds 
that die, all go to make up guano. As this region is practically 

' American Fertilizer. 



56 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

rainless and has a dry hot temperature, these remains dry out 
rapidly and are preserved without much loss of phosphoric acid 
or nitrogen. There is some loss of nitrogen in these Pe- 
ruvian guanos due to the formation of ammonium carbonate, 
a volatile form, and to leaching by occasional rains. However, 
these deposits have been the best nitrogenous guanos in the world. 
There are deposits in other parts of South America, West Indies, 
Africa, Australia, Asia, and the islands of the Pacific, but the 
Peruvian deposits are the most notable. There is a wide dififer- 
ence in the composition of guanos. In Peru, guano from the 
same island shows variation in chemical composition, while guano 
from different islands shows even a greater variation. The old- 
est deposits usually contain less nitrogen and more phosphoric 
acid than the more recent. In a wet, damp climate, fermenta- 
tion, aided by the presence of moisture, destroys all or most of 
the organic matter driving off the nitrogen as ammonium carbo- 
nate. Soluble phosphoric acid is also lost in such regions. 
Therefore it is easy to understand the wide differences in the 
composition of these deposits. 

Guanos range from rich nitrogenous deposits to phosphatic de- 
posits which only contain traces of nitrogen and considerable 
amounts of phosphate of lime. There are therefore two classes 
of guanos, namely, nitrogenous and phosphatic. The phosphatic 
guanos will be discussed under phosphates. 

Formerly guano was used more extensively in the United States 
but most of the nitrogenous deposits have been exhausted so that 
the importations are rather decreasing from year to year. There 
were 16,155 tons imported from Peru in 1905 and 5,500 tons in 
1909.^ 

The nitrogen in guanos is present in different forms. Some 
of it is as nitrates, some as ammonia and some as organic nitro- 
gen. The presence of these various forms makes the nitrogen- 
ous guanos valuable because they supply plant food during the 
whole growing season.* 

In Mexico there are deposits of bat guano, many of which are 
good nitrogenous fertilizers, but they are not being worked be- 

' 1910 American Fertilizer Handbook. 



HIGH GRADE NITROGKNOUS FERTILIZER MATERIALS 57 

cause of poor transportation facilities. There are also deposits 
of bat guano in Texas. The bat guanos are not as a rule as 
valuable as the high grade nitrogenous Peruvian guanos.* 

Ammonium sulphate is unlike the organic compounds as it is 
not a natural product but a manufacturing by-product. When 
pure it is a white crystalline salt but sometimes foreign substances 
become mixed with it, in the course of manufacture, which causes 
it to be grey, yellow, or blue. It is soluble in water and vola- 
tile, that is, it will pass ofT as gas when strongly heated over a 
flame. It is derived from the distillation of coal in the manu- 
facture of gas ; from the distillation of bones in the manufacture 
of bone-black; and from the manufacture of coke from coal. 
Coal was formed from vegetable matter and most coals average 
about 1.8 per cent, nitrogen. When coal is heated, as in the 
manufacture of gas or coke, about Vs of the nitrogen as am- 
monia is driven ofT and this ammonia may be saved by washing 
it in water in special apparatus. The solution thus formed is 
then distilled into sulphuric acid, concentrated and the crystals of 
sulphate of ammonia separate out on standing. Bones contain 
about 3 to 4.5 per cent, nitrogen and the nitrogen as ammonia 
is recovered in a similar way as in distilling coal or coke, when 
they are subjected to dry distillation by heat, as may be practiced 
in the manufacture of bone-black.* 

Composition and Availability. — Sulphate of ammonia when pure 
contains 21.2 per cent, nitrogen but the commercial article usually 
runs about 20 per cent. It is in a form very suitable for distri- 
bution in the soil and is readily converted into available plant 
food. It is more available than the organic forms. It is a quick 
acting fertilizer and suitable therefore for quick returns in crop 
production, an especial advantage for truckers and market gard- 
eners. It is sometimes substituted for nitrate of soda. 

As it is readily soluble in water it should be used sparingly, and 
frequent small applications are more effective than large amounts 
applied at long intervals. A continued use of it may cause the 
soil to become acid because of the sulphates left in the soil after 
the nitrogen is given up.* 



58 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

Nitrate of Soda. — This is a white or yellow or pink crystalline 
salt. The nitrogen in nitrate of soda is in a form that can be 
used by plants without undergoing any change. Nitrate of soda 
is the highest in point of availability of any of the nitrogenous 
fertilizer materials. It induces roots to grow deep. The ni- 
trate diffuses into the subsoil and the plants send down their roots 
for it. This is indeed of great benefit because it enables the plant 
to better stand dry spells and it increases the area of plant food 
supply. 

It is found in extensive deposits on the west coast of Chile 
and is often called Chile saltpeter. The entire deposits are found 
in layers sometimes 6 feet thick, about 2 to 10 feet below the 
surface, and are blasted out and treated to rid the product of 
impurities.* 

Composition and Properties. — Nitrate of soda contains 15 to 
16 per cent, nitrogen and the average product .found on the 
American market contains 15.3 per cent, nitrogen. It is very 
soluble in water and therefore it should be supplied in small 
quantities frequently to prevent losing it by leaching. It should 
be kept in dry storage as it absorbs water and is liable to liquefy 
It is hard to distribute evenly on the soil unless it is mixed with 
earth or some other material. On account of its caustic action 
it should be applied around the plants and not on them as it 
spots green vegetation. It should be kept away from live-stock 
as it is poisonous. Acid phosphates when damp should not be 
mixed with nitrate of soda as nitrogen is lost. The acid attacks 
the nitrate of soda liberating the nitrogen.* 

The utilization of nitrogen from the air by artificially uniting 
and fixing it with other elements to form compounds that could 
compete with the other nitrogenous fertilizer materials has at- 
tracted the attention of chemists and investigators for many years. 
It seems that at last the problem has been solved and it is now 
only a matter of a short time when the present modes of manu- 
facturing artificial nitrogen compounds will be so perfected that 
we will not be forced to worry about the future supply of this 
important element. There are two of these artificial nitrogenous 



HIGH GRADE NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER MATERIALS 59 

compounds being sold to-day, namely, calcium nitrate and calcium 
cyanamid. 

Calcium nitrate sometimes called lime nitrogen is manufactured, 
with cheap water-power, in Notodden, Norway. It contains 
about 13 per cent, of nitrogen and can be sold at a profit for $40 
per ton, which is equivalent to nitrate of soda at about $50 per 
ton. Recent experiments sh.ow it to be as valuable as nitrate 
of soda in crop producing power.* 

Calcium cyanamid is a grey black crystalline powder. It is 
made from limestone, coke and nitrogen gas with the aid of 
the electric furnace. When calcium cyanamid was first placed 
upon the market it contained small quantities of substances in- 
jurious to young plants, and the manufacturers now claim to 
put out a product in which these poisonous materials are absent. 
It carries 17 to 20 per cent, of nitrogen.* 

Properties. — About 80 per cent, of the nitrogen in the improved 
cyanamid is as cyanamid and the remaining 20 per cent, as ni- 
trate. Calcium cyanamid contains about 20 per cent, of free lime 
which absorbs water and carbonic acid gas from the air, causing 
the lime to slake and the product to decompose so that ammonia 
is formed. This ammonia is not lost to any great extent when 
the product is kept in bags, but if it is exposed in a loose pile the 
loss may be appreciable. Calcium cyanamid is soluble in water 
and when steam is introduced into it ammonia is driven ofif. In 
the soil the ammonia is given ofif by tiie action of water arid 
soil micro-organisms. The action with water is : 

CaCN, -f 3H0O = CaC03 + 2NH3. 

Fertilizing Value. — Experiments show that this product has 
about the same fertilizing value as ammonium sulphate on most 
soils. It is therefore highly available. It would no doubt show 
to good advantage on soils deficient in lime. Care should be 
exercised in its application. When the product contains injurious 
substances it is liable to injure seedlings and it is safe practice 
to apply it sometime before the seed is planted. It is thought 
to be injurious when used as a top dressing but this point has 
not been thoroughly proved. Should the '"Improved Cyanamid" 
be free from injurious substances it will prove a much more de- 
sirable fertilizer.* 



CHAPTER VI. 



LOW GRADE NITROGENOUS MATERIALS AND FUNCTIONS OF 

NITROGEN. 

The nitrogenous substances discussed in the previous chapter 
are all considered high class and valuable standard materials. 
Some of them as the mineral compounds are immediately or al- 
most immediately available, while the organic materials, both 
animal and vegetable, vary in their degree of availability, but 
stay with the crop during the whole or the greater part of the 
season. 

The high prices of these desirable and valuable nitrogenous 
materials have caused some of the manufacturers of commercial 
fertilizers to seek and use cheaper sources of nitrogen. Many 
of these cheaper materials, to be sure, are rich in nitrogen but 
really of little value as the nitrogen is present in such forms 
as to be inert or else too slow acting to stimulate plant growth. 
Many of these low grade nitrogenous waste products are im- 
ported from foreign countries yet we produce our share of them 
in this country. They are made up of wastes from the manu- 
facture of silk, wool, feathers, combs, hair, skins, sugar and 
some few are derived from vegetable sources. The materials 
most commonly used will be discussed. 

Raw Leather Meal. — This product contains about 8 per cent, 
nitrogen which is in a form that is very slowly utilized by plants ; it 
may remain in the soil for two or three years before decaying. It 
takes such a long time for it to decompose that it has not much 
value for fertilizing purposes. One of the objects in the treat- 
ment of leather is to prevent its decay and for this reason raw 
leather may remain in the soil for a very long time before under- 
going any change. This material is sold varying in the degree 
of fineness from a dust to coarse particles. If it is ever used it- 
should be powdered. At best it is a tough material. 

Dissolved leather, sometimes called treated leather or extracted 
leather, is made in Belgium. The raw leather is roasted and very 
finely ground and treated with superheated steam which removes 



LOW GRADE NITROGENOUS MATERIALS, ETC. 6l 

most of the tannic acid. It is then acidulated with sulphuric acid 
to fix the nitrogen and render it more available. This material 
is being used by the manufacturers in the United States to quite 
a considerable extent because it is cheaper than the more desirable 
nitrogenous materials per unit of nitrogen. This product con- 
tains about 8 per cent, nitrogen and is more valuable than raw 
leather. 

Feather waste and various skin wastes are also saved for fer- 
tilizing purposes. 

Hair and fur waste is rich in nitrogen. It is unsuitable as 
fertilizer because it is so slowly decayed. When properly treated 
with sulphuric acid and rendered assimilative for plants it is more 
valuable. Hair to a limited extent is often found in tankage. 

Mora meal is a vegetable product, brown in color, which is im- 
ported from Europe. The mora seed, which are grown in India 
and probably other tropical countries, are sent to Europe where 
they are subjected to pressure and the oil extracted. The re- 
maining pomace is ground and sold as mora meal. This product 
has been used for the past nine years in the United States and 
the consumption has increased every year. 

It carries about 2.5 per cent, of nitrogen which is of low avail- 
ability. It is not sold with any guarantee of nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid and potash, but on a flat basis. It is used by manufacturers 
of commercial fertilizers principally as a dryer and filler. It is 
good for both of these purposes because it is an excellent ab- 
sorbent and bulky. 

Beet Refuse. — This compound is a grey black powdery sub- 
stance. It contains from 5 to 7 per cent, nitrogen and about 
0.5 to I per cent, potash. One manufacturer used this compound 
in some of his mixtures because he believed it would kill in- 
sects in the soil. He believed this because of the presence of 
sulpho-cyanic acid in this compound. 

Scutch. — This is a by-product or waste product in the manu- 
facture of glue and the dressing of skins. It is manufactured in 
England and contains about 7 per cent nitrogen. 

Horn and hoof meal, horn shavings, etc., are products obtained 
from slaughtering houses or by-products in the manufacture of 



62 



FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 



combs and similar articles. In the raw state they are extremely 
hard to grind and are not valuable in this form because they 
decay too slowly to supply plant food with any degree of rapidity. 




Fig. 6. — A stock yards scene where tankage, blood, horn and hoof meal and 
similar fertilizer products are saved. 

When steamed and pulverized they become high grade products 
as mentioned in the previous chapter. 

Wool waste, shoddies, etc., taken collectively is the term ap- 
plied to any waste from silk or wool manufacturing which is no 
longer profitable for making cloth. It is slow to decay and is 
rather undesirable as fertilizer. It is often coarse and bulky and 
hard to mix in a manufactured fertilizer or to distribute evenly 
when applied to the soil* 

It is sometimes treated with superheated steam, the liquid 
evaporated to dryness and the product ground, or else it may be 
acidulated with sulphuric acid for a long time (2 months) to 



LOW GRADE NITROGKNOUS MATERIALS, ETC. 63 

render the nitrogen available. When treated by either of the 
above methods, it is known as dissolved wool, shoddy, etc., and 
is of course more valuable than the raw products from which 
it is made. 

Garbage Tankage. — Many of the large cities have plants where 
the garbage is accumulated. It is dried, or charred, or steamed, 
or extracted and the treated product is sold as garbage tankage. 
This material contains about 2 per cent, of nitrogen which is in 
a form that is slowly assimilated by plants. It is not a valuable 
fertilizer.* 

Dried peat, sometimes called dried muck, is used principally by 
the manufacturers because of its excellent drying properties. 
The use of it enables the manufacturer to put out a fertilizer 
in a fine mechanical condition which may be distributed evenly 
on the soil. This material varies in composition, depending on 
the amount of vegetable and mineral matter present, but may be 
considered as averaging 1.5 to 2 per cent, of nitrogen. 

Availability of Nitrogenous Fertilizer Materials. — The only cor- 
rect way to determine the value of any nitrogenous substance is 
by running experiments with growing plants. The high grade 
products as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, 
cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace, dry ground fish, 
tankage, ground bone, steamed horn and hoof meal, etc., have 
been tested by field experiments to determine their crop produc- 
ing power. Laboratory methods have been introduced to corre- 
spond as near as possible with the field results. 

The availability of nitrate of soda is always taken as 100 and 
the availability of the other materials is based on the results 
secured when compared to nitrate of soda. Should nitrate of 
soda give an increased yield of 500 pounds per acre for a crop, 
the yield of a nitrogenous fertilizer of 75 per cent, availability 
would give an increase of 375 pounds, etc. 

Not Always Possible to Run Field Experiments. — To conduct 
field experiments is often impossible, because of the great expense, 
the long time required, the difference in soils, the variation in 
seasons, the ability of the various crops for securing plant food, 
the association with other fertilizing materials containing phos- 



64 FERTILITY AND FERTILITY HINTS 

phoric acid, potash, lime, etc., so that much of our information 
on the low grade products has been worked out in the laboratory 
by chemical methods. These methods are not entirely satisfac- 
tory but indicate to a great extent the relative values of nitrog- 
enous fertilizers, as to whether they are high grade, medium 
grade or low grade. * 

Value of Low Grade Materials. — Raw leather, wool waste, 
shoddy, hair, etc., may be rendered fairly available as plant food 
by special treatment, but such treatment usually is expensive 
and the market value does not always permit it. The standard 
high grade materials are always to be preferred and these low 
grade wastes cannot be sold unless they are much cheaper. Hence 
these low grade substances are usually only partially treated or 
not at all, so that they have very little value as fertilizer and 
the use of them is liable to cause disappointment and poor yields. 
They are not always sold alone but are sometimes mixed together. 
The writer has examined a product imported from Belgium and 
sold as Foreign Imported Tankage which was made up of shoddy, 
wool waste, hair, and leather and was only partially treated. 
Most of the material was in the raw state and in poor mechanical 
condition ; chemical methods showed it to be poor plant food. 
This material contained about 7 per cent, nitrogen with traces of 
phosphoric acid. Should any of these low grade substances be 
used, the purchaser should demand that they be powdered, or 
ground very fine, in order to give the soil organisms a better 
chance to decompose them. The purchaser should not expect to 
get quick results with many of these wastes as some of them, 
particularly the raw leather, may remain in the ground for two 
or three years without any apparent change. 

The Use of Low Grade Materials is Increasing. — The use of these 
low grade materials seems to be increasing and many manufac- 
turers are using them in their low grade cheap fertilizers which 
carry low percentages of nitrogen, to a greater or less extent. 
The writer believes that some of these materials have no doubt 
been misrepresented to the manufacturers or else they would not 
use them. In order to insure future business they endeavor to 
put out fertilizers that will give good crop returns, and by satisfy- 



LOW GRADE NITROGENOUS MATERIALS, ETC. 65 

ing their formulas with much of this class of material the poor 
crop returns will surely hurt them in repeating orders. 

Some of these materials are said to be used as dryers by the 
manufacturers (peat and mora meal for example) but analyses 
of fertilizers containing them often show that the manufacturers 
counted the nitrogen content in making the fertilizers. Peat to be 
sure is a valuable filler for fertilizers as in addition to its drying 
qualities it contains about 30 per cent, of humus, but its nitrogen 
is not readily available and fertilizers containing it should have 
their guarantees satisfied by the use of more available substances. 

The Nitrogenous Materials to Use. — We have learned that most 
plants assimilate nitrogen from the soil as nitrate and occasion- 
ally as ammonia. We also know that certain organisms in the 
soil convert the nitrogen from organic sources into ammonia 
and from ammonia into nitrates. Therefore it is reasonable to 
suppose that substances containing nitrogen as nitrates are to be 
preferred for immediate results in plant growth. As ammonia 
is converted to nitrates in the soil, materials containing nitrogen 
as ammonia, as ammonium sulphate for example, are less active 
than nitrate of soda. Again, nitrogen from organic sources is 
less active than from substances containing nitrogen as nitrates 
or ammonia, as organic nitrogen must be changed to ammonia 
and nitrates before being usable, and we would use materials 
furnishing this form of nitrogen for slower and more lasting 
results. We have seen that the nitrogen from organic products 
varies a great deal in the power of giving up or holding nitrogen. 
Dried blood and cotton-seed meal, for example, give up nitrogen 
quicker than tankage and dry ground fish, and these latter sub- 
stances do not hold nitrogen as long as leather preparations and 
wool waste. Therefore in selecting the proper nitrogenous ma- 
terial or materials to use we must consider the condition of the 
soil, climate, locality, kind of crop, etc. 

For Immediate Results. — Should immediate results be desired, 
applications of nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, lime nitrate, 
or calcium cyanamid should serve the purpose. The locality may 
prevent the use of organic substances as a certain amount of heat 
(37° F.) is required for the soil organisms to convert organic 



66 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

nitrogen into nitrates. A wet season checks nitrification and 
hence nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia should give better 
results than the organic materials. 

For Soils Well Supplied and Long Growing Crops. — Should the 
soil have a sufficient natural supply of organic nitrogen as from 
some leguminous crop plowed under, etc., perhaps no organic 
nitrogenous material should be applied and a small application 
of some one of the mineral salts may suffice to give the crop a 
start. If the crop is a long growing one, an organic product 
may prove best, as it gives up its nitrogen in smaller amounts and 
more slowly than the chemicals and will thus stay with the crop 
the whole season. Mixtures of minerals and organic materials 
may sometimes be best so as to enable the plant to get a quick 
start by supplying immediate food and when this supply is ex- 
hausted, to furnish nourishment from the organic sources for 
the remainder of the season. The fertilizer manufacturers often 
use two or three different nitrogenous substances of different 
forms, as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia and cotton-seed 
meal, in their fertilizers to allow the plant a continual supply 
of available nitrogen. Mixtures of organic materials of different 
availabilities may make excellent combinations for certain crops. 

For Large Crops and Building up the Soil. — Should a large crop 
be desired the chemicals and the active organic substances would 
perhaps be preferable, but should the building up of the soil for 
some future crop be wished, the less active organic materials 
would prove more valuable than nitrate of soda, ammonium sul- 
phate, lime nitrate, calcium cyanamid, dried blood, cotton-seed 
meal, etc., as these materials are all changed to the nitrate form, 
except nitrate of soda which is already in this form, either im- 
mediately or during the season and would in all probability be 
lost because nitrates do not become fixed in the soil and are readi- 
ly washed away by heavy rains. The nitrogen in organic ma- 
terials is not soluble in water to any great extent as is the case 
with nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, lime nitrate and cal- 
cium cyanamid so that the losses by leaching of the former sub- 
stances are not considerable as compared to those of the latter. 

It is evident then that the farmer should select those sub- 



LOW GRADE NITROGENOUS MATERIALS, p:TC. 



67 



stances that will give the best results for his conditions and not 
purchase nitrogenous fertilizer that some neighbor recommends 







- -^tti^ 




^^S'l'^-.i'i. 




P"ig. 7.— A good crop of hay, the result of judicious soil management. 

who secured good crops with an entirely different crop and soil, 
etc.* 

Functions of Nitrogen. — Nitrogen increases growth and defers 
maturity. In a certain parish in Louisiana where the people were 
ignorant along fertilizing lines, cotton-seed meal was the only 
fertilizer known to them. So year after year they applied this 
fertilizer to their cotton. For the last three years that they 
practiced this, they produced excellent large cotton plants but 
the crop did not mature well or produce scarcely any cotton. 
The people could not understand it. They did not know that 
cotton-seed meal was a nitrogenous fertilizer nor did they know- 
that nitrogen produced growth. The Experiment Station was 
called upon to investigate the trouble and as the soil was natur- 
ally rich in potash, applications of acid phosphate corrected the 
condition. The above example shows the results of an excess 
of nitrogen in producing growth and deferring maturity. 



68 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

When excessive nitrogen is applied to potatoes it produces a 
vigorous growth of vines but very few tubers are formed. Should 
an excess of nitrogen be supplied the small grain crops it would 
cause them to lodge and produce grain of inferior quality and 
the excess of the weight of the crop to the weight of the grain 
would be high. Excessive nitrogen retards the formation of 
fruit. It produces growth of wood and leaves when the fruit 
should be forming. 

When nitrogen is lacking in the soil the plants do not grow 
so high as when the supply is sufficient. With crops grown on 
such soils the proportion of grain or seed to the weight of the 
crop is high. No matter how much phosphoric acid and potash 
there may be in the soil the crops can only use quantities in 
proportion to the growth of the plants, and the growth of plants 
will be in proportion to the nitrogen supply. 

Generally speaking an application of a nitrogenous fertilizer 
will produce increased yields without the application of potash 
and with an occasional supply of phosphoric acid. The nitrogen 
produces a better leaf development, a better growth, the color of 
crops become a darker green, and the crop matures later. Often 
the supplying of nitrogen alone will increase yields to such an 
extent that farmers may overate the value of this constituent. 
On soils that are deficient in organic matter, that have been 
continually cropped, the need of nitrogen is generally greater than 
phosphoric acid and potash.* 

Market gardeners often take advantage of the power of ni- 
trogen in the growing of lettuce and similar vegetables. Vege- 
tables grown on soils more than amply supplied with nitrogen pro- 
duce more delicate and tender vegetables, especially lettuce and 
cabbage, but they do not stand shipping so well ; although better 
for immediate consumption than vegetables grown on average 
soils they wilt and spoil quickly and are not popular with the 
commission houses. The cell walls and tissues are not so strong 
with crops grown on excessive nitrogen as when not. 

Excessive Nitrogen Invites Diseases. — Crops grown on soils that 
have excessive nitrogen are more susceptible to plant diseases 
than on average soils. This may be noticed to a limited extent 



LOV\' GRADE NITROGENOUS MATERIALS, ETC. 6<; 

with oats and wheat. When the season is especially favorable 
to the production of nitrates in the soil during the growing period 
or when oats and wheat are grown on rich nitrogenous soils rust 
is more prevalent than usual. Plant diseases due to excessive 
nitrogen are perhaps more noticeable with crops grown under 
glass than outside. Most of the soils that are used in hothouses 
are very rich in nitrogen and the high temperatures kept renders 
nitrification very rapid. The color of the leaves of hothouse 
crops becomes a darker green when excessive nitrogen is present ; 
the leaves become tender and thin and seem to be easily attacked 
by certain fungi unless extra precautions are taken. Cucum- 
bers are especially susceptible to disease in the presence of ex- 
cessive nitrogen. 



CHAPTER VII. 



PHOSPHATES. 



Phosphates are those materials that contain phosphoric acid. 
The phosphates occur as phosphate of lime, iron and alumina, 
in which compounds the phosphoric acid is united with lime, 
iron and alumina respectively. Since the phosphoric acid in fer- 
tilizers is derived mainly from phosphate of lime we will limit 
our treatment of the subject to the important materials compos- 
ing this group. 

The phosphates of lime occur as organic, organic and mineral, 
and mineral compounds. 

Bones. — The chief source of phosphoric acid from the organic 
phosphates of lime are bones. The composition of bones is 
variable. The bones from old mature animals are richer in phos- 
phate of lime than bones from young animals. Different bones 
from the same animal also show a variable composition, as the 
harder more compact bones are richer in phosphate of lime than 
the softer, porous ones. 

Raw Bone-Meal. — This is the finely ground product derived 
from raw bones and it contains all the constituents of them. 
It carries considerable organic matter much of which is in the 
form of fats, which makes it hard to grind and to handle on the 
market. The presence of organic matter makes it objectionable. 
The fatty matter, which slowly decomposes, tends to make this 
fertilizer very slowly available for plant food and so it is called 
a slow acting fertilizer. Raw bone-meal usually contains about 
19 to 25 per cent, of phosphoric acid and 2 to 4 per cent, of 
nitrogen, with an average of 22 per cent, of phosphoric acid 
and 3.5 per cent, of nitrogen.* 

The phosphates are sold to the trade on the basis of tri- 
calcium phosphate present. To convert tricalcium phosphate 
to phosphoric acid, multiply by the factor 0.4576 and to get the 
equivalent of tricalcium phosphate from a given percentage of 
phosphoric acid multiply, by 2.185. 

Steamed Bone-Meal. — Most of the bone sold for fertilizing 



PHOSPHATES 71 

purposes has been boiled or steanietl in the rendering' factories 
to extract the fats and nitrogenous compounds which are used 
in making soap, glue, and gelatine. The bones are then ground 
or pulverized and sold as steamed bone-meal, bone-meal and bone- 
dust. This product is variable in composition, ranging from 17.5 
to 29 per cent, of phosphoric acid and 1.5 to 4.5 per cent, of 
nitrogen. Good clean bone-meal should contain at least 2.5 per 
cent, of nitrogen and 25 per cent, of phosphoric acid. The 
treatment of the raw bones afifects the final composition of the 
product (steamed bone-meal) ; the boiling or steaming reduces the 
nitrogen content and increases the phosphoric acid. 

Steamed bone-meal is a more quickly available fertilizer than 
raw bone-meal and is therefore better for most crops. 

There is a great difference in the steamed bone-meals put 
upon the market not only in the composition but in the hardness 
of the product. Steamed bone-meal from some factories is more 
porous and softer than from others. Some factories put out a 
product that crumbles easily while others sell meal that is ex- 
tremely hard.* 

Degree of Fineness. — The bones when sold for fertilizing pur- 
poses are ground tine and are known as fine ground bone, bone- 
meal, bone-dust and bone-flour. The mechanical condition of 
fineness does not affect the composition but increases the avail- 
ability of the product for plant food. 1 fence the finer the bones 
are ground the more valuable they are as quicker acting fertilizers. 
These products are generally valued according to their degree of 
fineness and chemical comjiosition. It must be remembered that 
all bone-meals give up their plant food slowly and are not de- 
sirable for immediate results in the production of crops.* 

Bone-Black. — In the manufacture of bone-black, the choicest 
bones are selected, cleaned and dried. They are then put in air- 
tight vessels, heated and distilled until all the organic or volatile 
matter has passed off'. The product is then ground to a coarse 
consistency and sold to the sugar refineries for clarifying or de- 
colorizing syrups in the manufacture of white table sugar. After 
it has served its usefulness in the sugar refineries it is sold for 
6 



72 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

fertilizer. It contains usually about 30 per cent, of phosphoric 
acid in the form of phosphate of lime. It is a slow acting 
fertilizer and is not used extensively in this condition.* 

Bone-Ash. — When bones are burned the remaining product is 
called bone-ash. It is not manufactured a great deal in this 
country because of the greater value of bone-black. It is an ex- 
cellent fertilizer and the only shipments received to-day come 
from South America where the bones are burned to save freight. 
In burning bones the nitrogen is driven off, so tliat bone-ash is 
valuable only for the phosphoric acid it contains. It varies in 
phosphoric acid content from 30 to 39 per cent. It is used in 
some countries in the manufacture of fertilizers.* 

Bone Tankage, — This product is composed entirely of animal 
matter. It is the refuse from slaughter houses and rendering 
factories and consists of meat, bone, etc. (from which the fat has 
been extracted), and sometimes a little dried blood. There are 
many grades of tankage put upon tlie market. Those tankages 
coming under the head of bone tankage contain considerable bone 
and small amounts of meat and sometimes dried blood. The 
amount of phosphoric acid in tankage varies with the bone con- 
tent. The more bone present the higher is the percentage of 
phosphoric acid. The bone tankages range from 11/2 per cent, 
to 20 per cent, of phosphoric acid. Those tankages falling be- 
low iiy2 per cent, of phosphoric acid are discussed under the 
chapter on nitrogenous fertilizer materials. The phosphoric acid 
in bone tankages has about the same value as in steamed bone, 
since both of these products are steamed or boiled to extract the 
fats, etc. The bone tankages are very popular among farmers 
in certain sections of this country. 

Dry Ground Fish. — This is also an organic source of phosphoric 
acid from phosphate of lime. The phosphoric acid content de- 
pends upon the amount of bones present. This product was de- 
scribed with the fertilizer materials containing nitrogen. Suffice 
it to say that dry ground fish carries from 6 to 16 per cent, of 
phosphoric acid. 



PHOSPHATES 



73 



Average Composition of Organic Phosphates of Lime. 



Raw bone-meal .... 
Steamed bone-meal 

Bone-black 

Bone-ash 

Bone tankage 

Dry ground fish . . . . 



Phosphoric acid 
Per cent. 



Nitrogen 
Per cent. 



22 
25 
30 
36 

1 1.5-20 

9 



3-5 
2.5 



4-6 

8.5 



The phosphoric acid present in raw bone-meal, steamed bone- 
meal, bone tankage, bone-black, bone-ash and dry ground fish 
is insoluble in water and slowly available as plant food. 

Mineral Phosphates. — These occur in natural beds in different 
parts of the world. According to Van Horn in the American 
Fertilizer, the known phosphate deposits of the United States are 
distributed principally among four localities : ( i ) along the 
west coast of Florida, running back 20 to 25 miles inland; (2) 
along the coast of South Carolina, extending 6 to 20 miles in- 
land; (3) in central Tennessee; and (4) in an area comprising 
southeastern Idaho, southwestern Wyoming, and northeastern 
Utah. In addition to these areas, some deposits occur in north- 
central Arkansas, along the Georgia-Florida State line, and in 
North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, and Nevada, but these are 
mainly of low grade and not utilized at the present time. The 
three important deposits first mentioned have been worked from 
ten to thirty years ; the fourth is a new field which has as yet had 
but a small output." 

The most important deposits in this country are in Florida, 
South Carolina, and Tennessee and the production in the 
United States amounts to over two million long tons (2,240 
pounds) a year while that of the remaining countries approxi- 
mates one million tons. 

South Carolina phosphates were first put upon the market in 
1868. There are two kinds of phosphates found in South Caro- 
lina, namely, the land and river phosphates. The land phosphate 
IS mined from the land and is known as land rock, while the 
river phosphate is obtained by dredging rivers and is called river 



74 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

rock. These phosphates occur in the form of nodules varying in 
weight from a fraction of an ounce to more than a ton. 

Whether the rocks are mined or dredged, they are washed 
free from the clay and other adhering matter and dried, 
when they are ready for shipment. When phosphate rock 
is ground or pulverized it is known as floats and is 
used in this form in the middle western states quite extensively. 
The land rock is light fawn colored; the river rock is black; both 
are very hard. The South Carolina land rock averages about 50 
per cent, tricalcium phosphate, which is equivalent to about 23 
per cent, of phosphoric acid, and the river rock runs about 50 
to 60 per cent, tricalcium phosphate, which is equivalent to 23 
to 27.5 per cent, of phosphoric acid. 

Including the year 1908, South Carolina's total production of 
phosphates was 12,138,454 long tons of rock, of which about 
one-third was shipped to Europe. The discovery of the Florida 
phosphates decreased the exportation of those from South Caro- 
lina, to about 30,000 tons annually, because the Florida phosphates 
that are exported contain more phosphoric acid and less im- 
purities.* 

Florida phosphates occur as soft phosphate, pebble phosphate 
and boulder or hard rock phosphates. The soft phosphate 
resembles a whitish clay and generally contains 50 to 60 per cent, 
of tricalcium phosphate, which is equivalent to 23 to 27.5 per cent, 
of phosphoric acid. The hard rock ranges from 60 to 75 per 
cent, of tricalcium phosphate, which is equivalent to 27.5 to 34.3 
per cent, of phosphoric acid, although many samples show even a 
higher content of phosphoric acid. Most all of the high grade 
phosphates of Florida are exported to Europe where they find 
a ready market. Florida has put out 14,087,833 tons of phos- 
phate rock from 1888 to igo8.* 

Tennessee Phosphates. — These are perhaps the most extensive 
deposits in the United States that are being worked. Their com- 
mercial importance was made known in 1893. The Tennessee 
phosphates are known as brown rock, blue rock and white rock. 
About one-fourth of the high grade Tennessee phosphate is ship- 



PHOSPHATES 75 

ped to Europe the remainder being used in this country. The 
output of Tennessee phosphate has amounted to 5,315,422 tons 
from 1893 to 1908. The Tennessee rock phosphates are not in 
favor in Europe because of their high content of iron and alumina 
oxides, which run from 2 to 4.5 per cent. 

The brown rock has been sold more than the blue or white 
rock.* 

Canadian Apatite. — This is rock where the phosphate has be- 
come crystalline and is known as apatite and is found principally 
in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. It is not mined very 
extensively, only 748 tons being produced for 1907. It is a 
variable product and contains impurities. The Canadian apatite 
carries from 75 to 90 per cent, of tricalcium phosphate, which is 
equivalent to 34 to 41 per cent, of phosphoric acid. Preparing 
Canadian apatite for the market is a more expensive operation 
than mining the American phosphates. Apatite is usually con- 
sidered one of the purest forms of tricalciiun phosphate for 
manufacturing fertilizers.* 

Rodunda Phosphate. — This i)hosphate is found on the Rodunda 
Island. It is not a phosphate of lime but a phosphate of iron 
and alumina. Although the per cent, of phosphoric acid is high, 
( 20-38 per cent. ) this material cannot be used to manufacture 
into acid phosphate liecause of the absence of lime. The gypsum 
(sulphate of lime) formed in the manufacture of acid phosphate 
from phosphate of lime acts as a drier. Rodunda phosphate may 
be used for crops provided it is well pulverized but it must be 
considered as slow acting. This product is sometimes called 
iron and alumiiTa phosphate rock. 

Basic Slag. — This is known by several names as iron phosphate. 
Thomas phosphate powder, odorless phosphate, and phosphate 
slag. When phosphatic iron ores are used for the manufacture of 
steel by the basic process, an excess of lime is used which unites 
with the phosphoric acid and iron and forms a product known as 
basic slag. There is not much of this product manufactured in 
this country but the production is large in England, France and 
Germany. According to Wiley : The quantity of basic slag 



76 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

manufactured ip Germany in 1893 was 750,CX)0 tons; in England 
160,000; in France 115,000, making the total production of 
central Europe about 1,000,000, a quantity sufficient to fertilize 
nearly 5,000,000 acres. During the year 1907, it is estimated 
that German agriculture made use of from 1,500,000 to 1,600,000 
tons of basic phosphate slags. The total output of basic slag 
is undoubtedly not far from 2,000,000 tons. The total produc- 
tion of basic slag is therefore approximately one-half of that of 
crude phosphates.^ 

This product is sold in the form of an inpalpable powder which 
is black in color. The phosphoric acid in basic slag is often rated 
as valuable as the phosphoric acid in bone-meal. The composi- 
tion of this product is variable depending on the amount of phos- 
phoric acid in the iron ore, but it is possible to obtain this pro- 
duct containing 23 per cent, of phosphoric acid, but the lower 
grades are most common. It averages about 14.20 per cent, of 
phosphoric acid. On account of the large amounts of iron oxide 
present, it is not suitable for manufacturing artificial fertilizers.* 

Phosphatic Guanos. — These guanos are of the same origin as 
nitrogenous guanos. They are the excreta of sea fowls. Be- 
fore the phosphate deposits were discovered in the United States 
these guanos were imported into this country and used largely by 
the manufacturers. All of these guanos originally contained 
nitrogen. . However the nitrogen, soluble phosphates, and 
alkalies have disappeared by decomposition of organic matter 
and leaching of water, so that most of them only contain traces of 
nitrogen. The phosphoric acid is in the form of tricalcium phos- 
phate and insoluble in water. Some of these guanos contain too 
much iron and alumina oxides to manufacture profitably. They 
are not imported into the United States very much now, as many 
of the deposits are exhausted or else too expensive to compete 
with our native mineral phosphates.* 

It should be understood that there are many other phosphates 
used in other countries but they cannot compete with our mineral 
phosphates and therefore are not found on the American market. 

' Wiley, Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis, Vol. II. 



PHOSPHATES 



11 



Classification of Phosphates. — From the foregoing it is shown 
that there are three classes of phosphates used for fertiHzing 
purposes. 

I Raw bone-meal 
I Steamed bone-meal 

Bone-black 

Bone-ash 

Bone tankage 

Dry ground fish 



I. Bone phosphates 



2. Rock phosphates { 



I 



Florida 



South Carolina 



Tennessee 



1 



Land pebble 
River pebble 
Hard rock 

Land rock 
River rock 

Brown rock 
Blue rock 
White rock 



Apatite 

Rodunda phosphate 

Phosphatic guanos. 



3. Basic slag phosphates. 

Of the bone phosphates, bone-ash is not found much on the 




Fig. 8.— The hog; one of the sources of bone phosphate.— Courtesy of the 
Wisconsin Exp. Station. 

American market and bone-black is usually acidulated (treated 



78 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

with sulphuric acid) before being appHed as fertilizer. The 
production of rock phosphates in the United States has almost 
entirely discouraged the importation of the mineralized or phos- 
phatic guanos. 

Form of the Phosphates. — The phosphoric acid in bone phos- 
phates and rock phosphates is in the form of tricalcium phos- 
phate. Bone phosphates are always as phosphate of lime while 
rock phosphates contain more or less impurities as iron, alumina 
and silica. It is customary to apply the name, "bone phosphate 
of lime," to the phosphate present in rock phosphates, although 
tricalcium phosphate is the correct name. The phosphoric acid 
in basic slag is not in the same form as in the other phosphates. 
It was formerly accepted that the phosphoric acid in basic slag 
existed as tetra-calcium phosphate, but HalP claims that the 
phosphoric acid is in the form of double phosphate and silicate 
of calcium Ca,(CaO) (POJXaSiO,. 

Availability of the Phosphates. — All of the phosphates are 
slowly available as plant food and practically insoluble in water. 
The phosphoric acid in phosphates is not entirely used the first 
year so that maximum crop returns cannot be expected im- 
mediately, but the continued use of phosphates give good results. 
For quick growing crops the phosphates are not always desirable. 
The phosphates from bones are perhaps more readily decomposed 
than the rock phosphates. There is more or less organic matter 
in bones which decays quite rapidly and attacks the phosphoric 
acid with which it is closely associated. In the rock phosphates 
there is no organic decay and the impurities as iron and alumina 
retard to a certain extent the fermentation and decomposition 
of the phosphoric acid present. Basic slag phosphate as shown 
by the statistics in this chapter, is used extensively in Europe. 
European experiments show that this material is of higher avail- 
ability than the insoluble bone and rock phosphates. 

The nature of the soil has a great deal to do with the avail- 
ability of phosphates. Soils in good tilth will disintegrate the 
phosphates more readily than those in poor physical condition. 
The sandy and gravel soils are liable to give poorer results than 

' Fertilizers and Manures. 



PHOSPHATES 79 

clay soils or soils containing considerable organic matter and 
potash. Organic matter tends to promote fermentations which 
attack the phosphates and make them available as plant food, 
and with the aid of potash, it tends to act upon the lime of the 
phosphates. The kind of crop also influences the rate of de- 
composition of phosphates. Some plants are more able to make 
use of the phosphoric acid of phosphates than others.* 



CHAPTER VIII. 



SUPERPHOSPHATES AND EFFECT OF PHOSPHORIC ACID. 

The phosphates mentioned in the previous chapter, with the 
exception of basic slag, are not always used in the raw condi- 
tion for fertihzing purposes, but are treated with sulphuric acid 
in the manufacture of commercial or artificial fertilizers to make 
the phosphoric acid available ; that is, to convert the phosphoric 
acid into forms that may readily be used by the plant as food. 

Manufacture of Super or Acid Phosphate. — The manufacturing 
of artificial fertilizers began some time after 1840 in which year 
Liebig, a German scientist, discovered that by adding sulphuric 
acid (oil of vitriol) to bones the phosphoric acid was made 
soluble. This discovery paved the way for the manufacture of 
commercial fertilizers which are sold in such large quantities 
to-day. 

Manufacturing Sulphuric Acid. — The manufacture of super- 
phosphate is rather tecTinical but a knowledge of this important 
industry may prove of interest. To begin with, the manufac- 
turer purchases pyrites or brimstone and phosphate rock. Py- 
rites is a compound of sulphur and iron and is obtained from 
Spain and mines in this country. The pyrites or brimstone 
are burned in. special burners and the sulphurous gases are mixed 
with nitrous gases obtained from nitrate of soda. These mixed 
sulphurous and nitrous gases are introduced into large high lead 
towers and then into lead chambers which are also large and 
high. Steam is introduced into the lead chambers, mixed with 
the gases and sulphuric acid is formed which falls to the bot- 
tom as a liquid. These lead towers and lead chambers are very 
costly. 

Making Superphosphate. — The manufacturer purchases phos- 
phates that contain sufficient tricalcuim phosphate to warrant 
profitable treatment. Phosphates that contain considerable im- 
purities as iron and alumina are avoided. The phosphate rock 
is broken into small pieces and then pulverized. Certain amounts, 
say 1,000 pounds, of phosphate powder and dilute sulphuric acid 



SUPERPHOSPHATKS AND EFFECT OF PHOSPHORIC ACID bl 

are thoroughly mixed together by special machinery and con- 
veyed to a pit where the mixture is allowed to remain until 
ready for shipment. 

Chemistry of the Process. — The phosphoric acid is in the form 
of tricalcium phosphate in phosphates, or three parts of lime are 
united with one part of phosphoric acid. When the sulphuric 
acid is added it attacks the phosphate and dissolves it, setting 
free two parts of lime (that were originally combined with the 
phosphoric acid) which unite or combine with the sulphuric acid 
forming superphosphate (one lime phosphate or mono-calcic 
phosphate) and gypsum (sulphate of lime). In other words the 
phosphoric acid in superphosphate is only combined with one 
part of lime as the remaining two parts of lime, with which the 
phosphoric acid was formerly combined, have been set free. From 
the above it is evident that superphosphate is made up of one 
lime (mono-calcic) phosphate and gypsum (sulphate of lime). 
Or the reaction is : 

(3CaO PjOj) ; 2(H,,OSO:,) (Ca02H20P,0-) f 2(CaOS03) 

Tricalcic phosphate Sulphuric acid Monocalcic phosphate Gypsum 

Phosphates of Lime. — In the phosphoric acid fertilizers used 
there are four different forms of phosphates of lime, all of differ- 
ent availability. These phosphates of lime are known as the in- 
soluble, soluble, reverted, and basic slag forms. 

1. Insoluble Phosphoric Acid. — The most common form of phos- 
phate of lime is that which is found in bones, mineral phosphates, 
guanos, etc., and is called insoluble. The lime and phosphoric 
acid are combined as three parts of lime and one of phosphoric 
acid. This is called tricalcic, tribasic, bone phosphate and three 
lime phosphate. We may represent this form as follows: 

Lime C 

lyime < Phosphoric acid. 

Ivime ( 

This is the most insoluble form of phosphate of lime and is 
called insoluble phosphoric acid. 

2. Soluble Phosphoric Acid. — When insoluble phosphate of lime 
is acted upon by sulphuric acid, two parts of lime are replaced 
by two parts of water and soluble phosphate of lime is formed. 



82 FERTILITY AND FKRTILIZER HINTS 

This soluble phosphate is called super or acid phosphate and is 
a saturated compound. It is also known as monobasic, mono- 
calcic, and one lime phosphate. 

This compound may be graphically represented as : 

Lime i 

Water - Phosphoric acid. 

Water ( 

This form is entirely soluble in water and readily available as 
plant food. It is the highest valued form of phosphate of lime 
and is called soluble phosphoric acid. 

3. Reverted Phosphoric Acid. — Between the soluble and in- 
soluble phosphate of lime there is another form known as re- 
verted, citrate soluble, dicalcic, and two lime phosphate, in which 
there are two parts of lime and one part of water as represented : 

lyime ( 

Lime - Phosphoric acid. 

Water ( 

The name reverted is applied to this form of phosphate of 
lime because it is formed by reversion or retrograding of some 
of the soluble towards the insoluble. This form is not as soluble 
as the soluble phosphoric acid and is more soluble than the in- 
soluble form. It is insoluble in water, but the weak acids of the 
soil render it favorable for i:)lant food. The sum of the soluble 
and the reverted is called ai'ailablr. because both forms may be 
used by plants. 

4. Basic Slag Phosphate. — It used to be accepted that the three 
forms just described were the only forms of phosphoric acid. 
However, the phosphate of lime in basic slag is in another form. 
It was supposed that one part of phosphoric acid was combined 
with four parts of lime, and in this form it was known as tetra- 
calcic, tetrabasic, and four lime phosphate. 

Lime | 

Lime ! r>, , • • , 
J ■ { Phosphoric acid 
Inline I 

Lime \ 

Recently, however, there seems to be some uncertainty as to 
whether or not the phosphoric acid in basic slag exists as tetra- 



SUPERPHOSrHATES AND EFFKCT OF I'HOSPHORIC ACID S3 

calcic phosphate of Hnie. HalF says it exists as double silicate 
and phosphate of lime (CaO),- PoOr.SiO.. Whatever may he 
the form of combination of the phosphoric acid in basic slag, it 
is easily attacked by soil water, and is more available than any 
of the forms of tricalcium phosphate, though usually less than 
superphosphate.* 

Value of Reverted Phosphoric Acid. — The value of reverted 
phosphate is a subject which has given rise to much dispute among 
chemists. That it has a higher value than the ordinary insoluble 
phosphate is now admitted, but in this country, (England) in 
the manure trade, this is not as yet recognized. At first it was 
thought that it was impossible to estimate its quantity by chemical 
analysis. This difficulty, however, has been overcome, and it is 
generally admitted that the ammonium citrate process furnishes 
an accurate means of determining its amount. Both on the con- 
tinent and in the United States reverted phosphoric acid is rec- 
ognized as possessing a monetary value in excess of that possessefl 
by the ordinary insoluble phosphates. The result is, that raw 
mineral phosphates containing iron and alumina to any apprec- 
iable extent are not used in this country (England), although 
they do find a limited application in America and on the conti- 
nent.^ * 

Difference Between Phosphates and Superphosphates. — It is cus- 
tomary among some farmers to call every fertilizer a phosphate 
and among others this name is used for the product — superphos- 
phate. A phosphate is a product containing phosphoric acid as its 
main ingredient, in the insoluble form, as bone phosphates, rock 
phosphates and basic slag phosphates. A superphosphate is a fertil- 
izer containing principally soluble phosphoric acid. The phosphates, 
except basic slag and Rodunda phosphate, may be manufactured 
into superphosphates by the addition of sulphuric acid as previous- 
ly mentioned in this chapter. Thus we have superphosphates from 
bones and minerals, as raw bone superphosphate, steamed bone 
superphosphate, bone-ash superphosphate, bone-black superphos- 
phate, Florida hard rock superphosi)hate, Florida pebble superphos- 

1 fertilizers and Manures. 

2 Akiman. Manures and Manuring. 



84 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

phate, Florida soft rock superphosphate, South Carolina land rock 
superphosphate, South Carolina river rock superphosphate, Ten- 
nessee brown rock superphosphate, Tennessee blue rock super- 
phosphate, Tennessee white rock superphosphate, etc. Of course 
all of these superphosphates will not contain the same amounts 
of soluble phosphoric acid, as the mode of manufacture and con- 
tent of phosphoric acid in the raw products determine this. A 
superphosphate made from bone-black containing 30 per cent, of 
phosphoric acid will be richer in soluble phosphoric acid than 
one made from South Carolina land rock running 23 per cent, of 
phosphoric acid. Bone-black and bone-ash because of their 
higher phosphoric acid contents make richer superphosphates than 
those manufactured from most of the mineral phosphates. 

Some Names Applied to Superphosphates. — Acid phosphate, dis- 
solved bone, dissolved bone-black and dissolved bone-ash are 
names that are used indiscriminately by the trade. A manufac- 
turer may call a product made from rock phosphate, "dissolved 
bone," and sell it under this name. Dissolved bone, strictly 
speaking, is dissolved bone superphosphate, or a superphosphate 
made from raw or steamed bones. Dissolved bone-black is a 
superphosphate manufactured from bone-black. Dissolved bone- 
ash is a superphosphate made from bone-ash. The superphos- 
phates made from rock phosphates are usually called acid phos- 
phates by the trade, although this latter term is applied to any 
superphosphate and is perhaps a more common name in the United 
States than superphosphate. For superphosphates made from 
ground rock phosphate, acid phosphate is perhaps a more correct 
name as it is the phosphate acted upon by acid. 

Available Phosphoric Acid. — There seems to be a great deal of 
confusion among farmers over what constitutes available phos- 
phoric acid and this is not to be wondered at when one con- 
siders the number of terms applied to reverted and insoluble 
phosphoric acid. Reverted phosphoric acid is soluble in the weak 
acids of the soil. The chemist uses a solution called ammonium 
citrate or citrate, which has a similar action to the weak soil 
acids, in dissolving out this form of phosphoric acid. For this 
reason the term citrate soluble is often applied to reverted phos- 



SUPERPHOSPHATES AND EFFECT OF PHOSPHORIC ACID 85 

phoric acid. The insoluble phosphoric acid is not soluble in this 
citrate solution but it is soluble in strong acids, hence the names 
citrate insoluble and acid soluble are applied to insoluble phos- 
phoric acid. 

Reverted phosphoric acid is equivalent to citrate soluble phosphoric acid. 

r iui 1. u- J- -14^^ ( citrate insoluble phosphoric acid 

Insoluble phosphoric acid IS equivalent to <i •, , ,, u \ ■ a 
^ ^ ^ I acid soluble phosphoric acid. 

The sum of the soluble and reverted phosphoric acid is called 
available phosphoric acid, or the sum of the soluble and citrate 
soluble phosphoric acid is available phosphoric acid. The farmer 
often confuses the term acid soluble as belonging to the available 
phosphoric acid on account of the use of the word soluble. 
Again, the difference between the total phosphoric acid (which is 
the sum of the soluble, reverted and insoluble forms) and the 
insoluble phosphoric acid is available phosphoric acid.* 

The Difference of the Forms of Phosphoric Acid in Superphos- 
phates. — In the manufacture of superphosphates not all of the 
tricalcium phosphate is converted into soluble phosphoric acid. 
The manufacturer generally calculates to add just enough acid 
to convert most of the phosphoric acid into the soluble form. 
However, he does not wish to add too much acid in order to put 
out a profitable marketable product. Hence most of the superphos- 
phates found on the market contain some insoluble phosphoric 
acid, ranging perhaps from a few hundredths to as high as four 
per cent, in poor acidulation. This insoluble phosphoric acid 
in superphosphates is dift'erent. That in the lx)ne superphos- 
phates is of more value as regards availability than the in- 
soluble phosphoric acid in the mineral superphosphates. The in- 
soluble phosphoric acid is also of dift'erent value in the mineral 
superphosphates depending upon the nature or purity of the rock 
from which they were made. However, the insoluble phosphoric 
acid in super or acid phosphates is generally present in small 
amounts and would only have to be seriously considered when the 
acidulation proves insufficient. The soluble phosphoric acid in all 
superphosphates is the same, whether the superphosphates are 
made from bones, bone-ash, bone-black, or any of the mineral 
phosphates. It is an erroneous opinion among some, that the 



86 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

material from which the superphosphate is made influences the 
value of the soluble phosphoric acid. Many farmers would rather 
purchase soluble phosphoric acid as superphosphates manufac- 
tured from bones than soluble phosphoric acid from mineral sup- 
erphosphates. There is not any difference in the soluble phos- 
phoric acid of superphosphates no matter what raw material is 
used in making it. Of course a dissolved bone superphosphate 
will perchance give better results than a raw rock superphos- 
phate of equal soluble phosphoric acid composition as the dis- 
solved bone superphosphate will contain in addition to the phos- 
phoric acid, a certain amount of nitrogen, so if we judge the 
value of soluble phosphoric acid in this way we are assuming 
an unequal and unfair task. 

Some Farmers Favor Bone Superphosphates. — Many farmers 
seem to be predjudiced against the mineral superphosphates and 
always demand superphosphates made from bone. Often the 
price is much higher for the bone superphosphates on account 
of the greater price bones bring when sold for bone-black, manu- 
facturing interests, etc. These farmers could generally purchase 
their phosphoric acid more cheaply from mineral superphosphates. 
Of course when dissolved bone and mineral superphosphate of 
equal available phosphoric acid content, are offered for the same 
price, it is more economical to select the dissolved bone ; but it 
is seldom that one can get such a bargain as the dealers in fer- 
tilizers always charge for the ammonia content. Generally phos- 
phoric acid can be purchased cheaper from mineral superphos- 
phates than from dissolved bone superphosphates. 

Double Superphosphate. — This is sometimes called double phos- 
phate. This double superpnosphate is manufactured as follows: 
Phosphates are treated with an excess of sulphuric acid (chamber- 
acid) and the phosphoric acid is dissolved out as free phosphoric 
acid. The fluids, sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid are fil- 
tered or separated from the insoluble matter and concentrated. 
This concentrated solution is then used in dissolving high grade 
phosphates and the resulting product is called double superphos- 
phate because the phosphoric acid content is more than double 



SUPERPHOSPHATES AND EFFECT OF PHOSPPIORIC ACID 87 

and generally three times as much as in superphosphates. Wiley^ 
suggests that superphosphate is a more correct name for this 
class of material as it is a phosphate acted upon by free phos- 
phoric acid and superior to acid phosphate. Phosphates contain- 
ing too low a percentage of phosphate of lime for profitable manu- 
facture of acid phosphate may be utilized in obtaining the free 
phosphoric acid. 

Not much double superphosphate is found on the American 
market but it is quite popular in Germany where it is manufac- 
tured principally. Double superphosphates contain about 40 to 
45 per cent, of available phosphoric acid. They contain less im- 
purities than acid phosphates. The phosphoric acid is present 
in the same forms as in acid phosphate, namely as soluble, re- 
verted and insoluble phosphoric acid. Double superphosphates 
are expensive but sometimes economical to purchase when freight 
is high. 

No Free Acid in Treated Phosphates. — Acid phosphates and 
double superphosphates when well manufactured do not contain 
any free acid as all of the sulphuric acid is united with lime and 
forms gypsum. Of course it is possible for a manufacturer to 
make a product that will contain free acid, but this is not done 
and the product delivered to the trade does not contain any free 
acid. 

The Color of an Acid Phosphate. — There seems to be a prefer- 
ence among some for a light colored acid phosphate while others 
demand a dark colored product. The color and nature of the 
raw material from which acid phosphates are made determine 
their final color. The manufacturers in order to satisfy the trade 
often carry two dififerent colored acid phosphates of the same 
chemical composition which are made from the same raw product. 
The dark or black color is obtained by mixing in lamp-black 
when the final product is not sufficiently dark. Some raw ma- 
terials as bone, bone-black, etc., produce a black superphosphate 
without the addition of any coloring substance. The color of 
an acid phosphate does not indicate its fertilizing value.* 

' Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis, Vol. II. 
7 



88 FKRTlIvlTY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

How to Make Superphosphate at Home. — Sometimes farmers 
live far away from places where fertilizers may be purchased 
and should such farmers save the bones that accumulate on the 
farm, superphosphate may be made at home. The process may 
be conducted as follows : Break up the bones in as small pieces 
as possible and add one-third their weight of water to them in a 
long wooden trough lined with sheet lead or with a thick coat- 
ing of pitch ; the lead is better. To the bones and water, add 
very slowly sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). This acid must be 
added very slowly as great heat is evolved on the addition of sul- 
phuric acid to water. The amount of acid to add depends upon 
its strength or concentration. About one-third the weight of 
the bones of strong white sulphuric acid or one-half of the brown 
sulphuric acid should suffice. The whole mass should be thor- 
oughly mixed with a wooden shovel, allowed to stand for an hour 
and removed to some dry place and stored for two months when 
it will be ready for the land. If sulphuric acid gets on your 
clothes it will ruin them and it will burn the skin wherever it 
touches it.* 

Amount of Phosphoric Acid in Soils. — The phosphoric acid in 
soils is generally found in largest amounts in the surface soil and 
is usually derived from the disintegration of rocks. It is often 
deficient and many soils show only traces of phosphoric acid. 
Even fertile soils only contain small amounts of this constituent. 
Soils average from traces to 0.25 per cent, of phosphoric acid. 
We may figure than an average soil contains about 3,500 to 4,000 
pounds phosphoric acid per acre. Only a small amount of this 
is available. Some soils may contain larger quantities of phos- 
phoric acid but the poor condition of the soil keeps this locked up 
so that plants cannot utilize it. Organic matter, lime and good 
tillage help to increase the available supply of phosphoric acid. 

Fixation of Phosphoric Acid. — When soluble phosphoric acid 
is added to soil it becomes fixed and does not wash out readily. 
It is generally supposed that soluble phosphoric acid from fer- 
tilizers becomes readily distributed and unites with the minerals 
forming compounds insoluble in water ; the phosphoric acid in 
•soluble phosphoric acid is in a very finely divided state and the 



SUPERPHOSPHATES AND EEEECT OF PHOSPHORIC ACID 89 

distribution takes place before the insoluble compounds are 
formed. Soils rich in lime readily fix phosphoric acid and a 
certain amount is probably fixed in combination with iron and 
alumina. Experiments show that phosphoric acid is not carried 
away by leaching to any extent. All soils are not of equal fixa- 
tion value ; most soils fix phosphoric acid but some are better 
equipped to perform this process than others. Clay soils rich in 
lime fix phosphoric acid very rapidly while soils deficient in lime 
act much slower in this respect. Sandy and gravel soils, lacking 
in organic matter and clay, do not fix the phosphoric acid rapidly.* 

Functions of Phosphoric Acid. — Phosphoric acid hastens maturi- 
ty of crops. It has a ripening efifect and seems to hasten grain 
and fruit formation ; it increases the yield of grain ; it stimulates 
root development in young plants. 

Phosphoric acid helps in transferring substances from the 
stalks, leaves, and other growing parts to the seed. Certain sub- 
stances are aided by phosphoric acid by being rendered soluble 
enough to pass through the plant tissues. 

Phosphoric acid helps to build up protein substances in the 
plant as certain proteid bodies require phosphoric acid for their 
complete development. Therefore a lack of phosphoric acid 
would necessarily cause the plant to suffer.* 

The kind of phosphate to use depends upon the crop and the 
soil. As a general rule the best immediate results are secured 
from those phosphates that are acidulated and the raw phosphates 
are slower acting and not so suitable for weak feeding crops. 
To get the full benefit from raw products sometimes requires 
two or three seasons, so that a farmer employing slowly avail- 
able products should plan to add enough each year to supply 
the crop with sufficient available phosphoric acid.* 



CHAPTER IX. 



POTASH FERTILIZERS. 

Before the discovery of the potash mines in Stassfurt, Ger- 
many, the main source of supply of potash was wood ashes. 

History. — The following description tells how the deposits 
of potash salts were formed. 

The Stassfurt salt and potash deposits had their origin, thous- 
ands of years ago, in a sea or ocean, the waters of which gradual- 
ly receded, leaving near the coast, lakes which still retained com- 
munication with the great ocean by means of small channels. In 
that part of Europe the climate was then tropical, and the waters 
of these lakes rapidly evaporated, but were constantly replenished 
through these small channels connecting them with the main 
body. Decade after decade this continued, until by evaporation 
and crystallization the various salts present in the sea water were 
deposited in solid form. Overlying the deposits is a layer of 
impervious clay which acts as a water-tight roof to protect and 
preserve the very soluble salts.* 

Potash Salts Used for Fertilizing Purposes. — The principal pot- 
ash salts obtained from these mines that are used as fertilizers in 
the United States are : 

1. Kainit 

2. Sylvinit 

3. Muriate of potash 

4. Sulphate of potash 

5. Double sulphate of potash and magnesia 

6. Potassium — magnesium carbonate. 

These products may be classified as crude and manufactured as 

follows : 

Crude salts ( Kainit 

Natural products j Sylvinit 

f Muriate of potash 

Manufactured salts I Sulphate of potash 

Concentrated salts j Double sulphate of potash and magnesia 

1^ Potassium-magnesium carbonate. 

There are many other salts as carnallit, polyhalit, krugit, 



POTASH I'liRTlUZERS QI 

hartsalz, sylvin, kieserit and schonit found in these deposits but 
are not usually sold on the American market. 

1. Kainit as sold in this country is a finely ground, gray 
colored and contains small red and yellow particles. This pot- 
ash salt has been used more extensively in this country than any 
of the others, but the kainit deposits are gradually becoming ex- 
hausted so that it is not so common on our markets as formerly. 
Kainit is made up of potassium, sodium and magnesium chlorides, 
and potassium, magnesium and calcium sulphates. The potash 
is present chiefly as sulphate but on account of the large amounts 
of sodium and magnesium chlorides present, the potash has the 
same action as if it were chloride. Kainit usually contains 12 to 
12.5 per cent, of potash.* 

2. Sylvinit. — This salt when ground is much more red in color 
than kainit. It is being used more in this country than formerly 
because of the scarcity of true kainit. It is often sold in the 
United States by the fertilizer manufacturers under the name of 
kainit. Sylvinit consists chiefly of chlorides ; in fact is is com- 
posed principally of sodium chloride and potassium chloride. It 
carries from 12.5 to 15.5 per cent, of potash.* 

3. Muriate of Potash, — As has been said, this product is a 
manufactured one. It is sold in large quantities in this country. 
The crude salts of the mines are refined, during which process 
most of the useless impurities are removed, as lime, magnesia, 
soda, etc. The principal grades of muriate of potash as manu- 
factured are: 

•\ctual potash (KjO) 
Per cent. 

= 46.7 

= 52.7 

= 57-9 

= 62.0 

The product sold in the United States usually contains 80 per 
cent, of muriate of potash which is equivalent to 50.5 per cent, 
of potash.* 

4. Sulphate of Potash. — This is a yellow, dry, almost powdery 
substance. It is sold containing 90 to 97 per cent, of sulphate of 



Ml 


uriate of potash 
Per cent. 


(Kcn 




70 to 
80 to 


75 
85 






90 to 


95 

98 





92 



FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 



potash which is equivalent to 46 to 52 per cent, of potash. High 
grade sulphate of potash containing 50 per cent, of potash is most- 
ly used in America. 

Sulphate of potash is more expensive than muriate because 




Fig. 9. — Tobacco; a crop that is injured by excessive chlorides. — After 
Conn. Exp. Station. 

the cost of manufacture is more, but it is desirable for tobacco, 
potatoes, citrous fruits, and other crops that are injured by ex- 
cessive chlorides.* 

5. Double Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia. — This product is 
somewhat similar in action on crops to high grade sulphate of 
potash. It contains considerable sulphate of magnesia which is 
believed to exert a beneficial effect. It usually carries about 26 
per cent, of potash. It is not used to any great extent in this 
country, except by some fruit growers who prefer it to sulphate 
of potash.* 

Potash Manure Salts.— There are other potash salts that vary 
from 20 to 30 per cent, of potash called double manure salts and 



POTASH FERTILIZERS 93 

potash manure salts which are not used extensively in fertilizers ; 
althoug-h a potash manure salt containing 20 per cent, of potash 
is sometimes sold which acts like kainit."^ 

6. Potassium-magnesium Carbonate. — This is a dry, white manu- 
factured product. It is not sold as extensively as kainit, sylvinit, 
muriate of potash and sulphate of potash, but it is well liked by 
tobacco growers. It is also used in Florida on oranges and pine- 
apples. This product is an excellent source of potash for any 
crops that chlorides prove injurious to. It usually contains from 
20 to 25 per cent, of potash in the form of carbonate. On ac- 
count of its dry nature, and because it does not absorb water from 
the atmosphere, it is always easy to distribute.* 

Potash from Organic Sources. — Most of the potash used in 
fertilizers is derived from the mineral sources but a small amount 
is sometimes purchased in the form of wood ashes, tobacco stems, 
cotton-seed hull ashes, and beet molasses. 

I, Wood Ashes. — Before the discovery of the Stassfurt de- 
posits wood ashes were used more extensively than now and were 
practically the chief source of potash to be found on the American 
market. The potash in wood ashes is in a form (as carbonate) 
which is very desirable for all plants. The product offered to the 
trade is not uniform as different woods, parts of the same wood 
as bark, twigs, etc., and methods of handling, all influence the 
composition. The ashes from soft woods usually contain a lower 
percentage of potash than the ashes from hard woods. Leached 
wood ashes naturally carry much less potash than unleached 
ashes. Ashes contain about 1.9 per cent, of phosphoric acid, 5.5 
per cent, of potash and 34 per cent, of lime. They usually con- 
tain more or less dirt and moisture which lower the composition. 
The main source of wood ashes is Canada as not much wood is 
burned in the United States.* 

Value of "Wood Ashes. — From a chemical standpoint the value 
of wood ashes is represented in the contents of potash, phosphoric 
acid and lime. Ashes have another value in improving the con- 
dition of the soil. They seem to help to conserve moisture, im- 
prove the texture of soil and correct acidity, thereby increasing 



94 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

the action of the organisms that promote nitrification. Most 
soils are benefited by an apphcation of wood ashes. Grasses and 
legumes especially do well when wood ashes are applied as a top 
dressing. 

2. Tobacco Steins. — Wherever cigars, cigarettes, smoking and 
chewing tobacco are manufactured there are considerable wastes 
of stems and stalks collected. This material was formerly thrown 
away or burned. The burning of tobacco wastes caused the 
nitrogen to be lost. To-day these wastes are saved and used as 
fertilizer.* Tobacco stems contain 2.5 per cent, of nitrogen, 0.6 
per cent, of phosphoric acid and 8 per cent, of potash. Tobacco 
stalks carry 3.5 per cent, of nitrogen, 0.4 per cent, of phosphoric 
acid and 4 per cent, of potash. 

3. Cotton-seed Hull Ashes. — A few years ago, before the value 
of cotton-seed hulls as a feed for live-stock was known, it was 
the custom to burn these hulls in the furnaces of the gins of the 
Cotton Belt, and dispose of the ashes for fertilizing purposes. 
In those days considerable cotton-seed hull ashes was to be found 
on our markets, but to-day it is rarely used. This product contains 
on the average, 24 per cent, of potash and 8.7 per cent, of phos- 
phoric acid.* 

4. Carbonate of Potash. — This fertilizer is used to some ex- 
tent by the tobacco growers of the Connecticut Valley. 

It usually carries 63 to 65 per cent, of potash and is very 
alkaline. It is a white substance and soluble in water. It takes 
on moisture readily and for this reason it is usually put up in 
casks.* 

5. Beet Molasses. — The molasses obtained from the manufac- 
ture of sugar from the sugar-beet is quite rich in potash which 
gives this product its bitter taste thus making it unpalatable for 
human consumption. Beet molasses contains from 10 to 15 per 
cent, of ash of which 7.5 to 12.25 P^^" cent, is in the form of 
potash salts. 

Amount of Potash in Soils. — Soils generally contain from o.i 
tc 0.5 per cent, of potash, which is equivalent to 3,500 to 18,000 
pounds of potash per acre to a depth of one foot. Most of this 



POTASH FERTILIZERS 95 

potash is not available to plants and so a soil apparently rich in 
potash will often be helped by a supply in artificial forms. The 
addition of lime often increases the supply of available potash 
in soils, by promoting certain favorable chemical changes. The 
condition of the soil also influences the amount of available pot- 
ash. Light sandy soils are more apt to be deficient in potash than 
heavy soils. 

Forms of Potash. — A review of this chapter teaches us that 
potash exists chiefly in three forms in fertilizer materials. 

. 1.1 -J ■ ( Muriate of potash 
As chloride m I ^^ . ■ -^ ^ 
I Sylvinit 

. 1 h t ■ ^ Sulphate of potash 

" I Double sulphate of potash and magnesia. 

As sulphate and chloride in Kainit (action same as chloride) 

r Potassium-magnesium carbonate 
As carbonate in -; Wood ashes 

( Potassium carbonate. 

The form of potash is an important consideration in the pur- 
chase of fertilizers, as potash in the form of chloride is injuiious 
to the marketable value of certain crops as tobacco, potatoes, 
sugar beets, and oranges. Muriate of potash seems to make 
potatoes waxy ; with sugar beets it seems to lessen the percentage 
of sugar as sucrose ; for tobacco the flavor is spoiled for smoking 
it sometimes forms calcium chloride in the soil which is not rel- 
ished by plants. 

The form of potash does not seem to work any injury on crops 
as legumes, grasses, corn, etc., and for such crops potash should 
be purchased in its cheapest form. Muriate of potash diffuses 
better in the soil than sulphate of potash. It should be under- 
stood that actual potash (KgO) is not injurious to plants, but 
the form or elements it is associated with are the cause of its 
effect on crops. 

Fixation of Potash. — Potash is quickly fixed in the soil; it re- 
places the sodium and calcium in soils and fonns compounds in- 
soluble in water. The chlorides of potash are liable to render the 
lime content of a soil deficient, as the chlorine unites with lime 
and forms a soluble compound that is readily leached from the 



96 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

soil. In experiments at the Massachusetts Experiment Station, 
Goessmann found that continued applications of muriate of pot- 
ash produced sickly crops which were made well and healthful by 
an application of lime. Therefore acid soils should always re- 
ceive an application of lime before the use of potash as chloride. 
As potash is quickly fixed in the soil and the chlorides washed 
out, it is often advisable to apply chloride of potash some time 
before the crop is planted, especially when the crop that is to be 
planted is injured by chlorine. The fixation of potash usually 
occurs in the surface soil and so rapidly does this fixation take 
place on some alluvial soils, that it is necessary to work it in soon 
after applying to insure an even distribution. 

Functions of Potash. — The intelligent use of potash fertilizers 
requires a knowledge of the efl:'ect of this constituent on crops. 
Potash is essential to the formation of starch, sugar and cellulose 
(pure fiber) in plants. When there is a deficiency of available 
potash in soils, certain plants do not mature well. 

Potash Favors Seed and Straw Formation. — HalP says : On 
grass plots another very striking effect of potash manuring is 
also very manifest. On the potash-starved plots the grasses fail 
to a large extent to develop any seed, and the heads are soft and 
barren, presumably because of the deficiency in carbohydrate for- 
mation. For the same cause the straw, not only of the grasses, 
but also on the similarly manured wheat and barley plots, is also 
weak and brittle when potash is wanting. 

Potash Effects the Leaves. — Grass grown on soils deficient in 
potash tends to show the effect of this constituent by producing 
a brown sickly appearance. The grass blades often turn brown 
about 2 inches from the tip and die off. The leaves of root crops 
also often show a lack of potash when they are nearing maturity, 
by a spotted or brown coloration. 

Potash Effects Maturity. — Experiments show that soils without 
sufficient potash do not produce as valuable grain crops in dry 
seasons as soils rich in this constituent. This is probably due 
to the fact that potash causes a longer growing period and holds 
back maturity. With root crops the opposite effect has been 

' Fertilizers and Manures. 



POTASH FERTILIZERS 97 

found to exist. That is the maturity of these crops is hastened 
by a supply of potash. 

Potash Helps to Neutralize Plant Acids. — Many plants contain 
acids ; for example, in the grape there is tartaric acid ; in the 
apple, malic ; in the orange, citric ; and potash helps to neutralize 
these plant acids and form acid salts. 

Potash Sometimes Checks Insect Pests an.d Plant Diseases. — 
Experiments show that certain forms of potash are distasteful 
to some insects and tend to check their ravages. Potash seems 
to make plants better able to resist attacks of certain fungi, es- 
pecially when soils are deficient in this constituent, by producing 
a stronger and more vigorous growth.* 



CHAPTER X. 



MISCELLANEOUS FERTILIZER MATERIALS. 

The fertilizer materials discussed in the previous chapters are 
those products most commonly used and constitute the main 
sources of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. There are, how- 
ever, other substances that are occasionally utilized that have 
some value. Some of these materials are used at times by ferti- 
lizer manufacturers while others are employed directly by farm- 
ers. Some of them furnish one or more of the essential ele- 
ments in amounts sufficient to warrant their use, when they can 
be obtained cheaply, while others are not applied for their fer- 
tilizer value but to improve the condition or texture of the soil, 
to increase the available plant food supply or to conserve moisture. 
There are some products discussed in this chapter that have 
no particular value as fertilizer but are taken up to set clear 
impressions that are prevalent among some who feel that these 
products can be used to replace to a certain extent the more 
important fertilizer materi.ds. It should be remembered that 
many of these materials we are about to discuss do not contain 
sufficient amounts of the essential elements to produce paying 
crops but they may be used to partially replace commercial fer- 
tilizers. 

Compost. — A compost is usually made up of layers of manure 
and vegetable matter. Sometimes lime, acid phosphate, ground 
raw rock phosphate, cotton-seed, gypsum, and similar fertilizer 
materials are added to it. A compost can be made in the fol- 
lowing manner. First select a shady place and provide a good 
drainage. Then make a foundation with a layer of earth. On 
top of this place a layer of leaves or manure then a layer of 
earth, another layer of leaves, cotton-seed and manure, a layer 
of earth, etc. The top of the compost should be covered with 
earth and it should be shaped to shed water. The compost should 
be kept moist to prevent the loss of nitrogen as ammonia. The 
manure, leaves, cotton-seed, raw rock phosphate, etc., will de- 
cay or undergo changes due to the action of organisms similar 



MiscELivANEous fertilize;r materials 99 

to what would take place in the soil, when the compost is kept 
thoroughly moist. Before applying any of the compost to the 
land it should be well mixed to make it uniform. The earth 
is used in layers to absorb the ammonia that may be set free in 
the process of decay of the organic materials. The amount of 
fertilizing material obtained from a compost will be equal to the 
amount of fertilizer material added to it, provided there is no 
loss; but the availability of these materials will be greater. 

Seaweed. — In states bordering on the ocean seaweed is used 
a great deal for fertilizer. Stormy weather throws considerable 
quantities on the beach and the states of Rhode Island, New Jer- 
sey, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts have used this fertilizer 
for many years. 

The best way to apply seaweed is in the fresh state. The dififer- 
ent varieties of seaweed contain from 70 to over 80 per cent, of 
moisture and when it is to be transported any considerable dis- 
tance it may be spread thin and sun-dried to avoid carting so 
much water. They contain from 0.25 to 1.25 per cent, of ni- 
trogen, about 0.20 per cent, of phosphoric acid and 0.60 to 1.4 
per cent, of potash. About 20 to 25 per cent, of the ash of sea- 
weeds is chloiine.* 

Marl. — There are two principal classes of marls, namely shell 
marls and green sand marls. The shell marls contain less phos- 
phoric acid and potash and more lime than the other marls. 
Marls average about 0.40 per cent, of phosphoric acid and 1.40 
per cent, of potash. Marls improve the physical condition of 
some soils.* 

Peat and Muck. — In low wet places where vegetable matter 
accumulates, decomposition sets in and the substance formed is 
called peat or muck. This material does not run high in the 
essential elements ; it averages about 0.7 per cent, of nitrogen and 
about 75 per cent, of water. The phosphoric acid and potash con- 
tents approximate what is contained in good soil. The value of 
this substance depends upon its nitrogen content which in turns 
depends upon the amount of organic matter. The nitrogen is 
not perhaps as available as that in cultivated soils and unless it 
is easy to obtain it is doubtful whether it pays to use it.* 



lOO FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

Pulverized Manures. — Pulverized sheep manure, poultry ma- 
nure, and pigeon manure are found on the market in some sec- 
tions. These manures usually carry a higher price than the 
regular commercial fertilizers although they are not so valuable. 
These products should be saved on the farm but it will hardly 
pay to purchase them unless the price is much less than for com- 
mercial fertilizers. The value of these manures is often ex- 
aggerated because they are quick acting. They are to be found 
for sale in seed stores and are purchased generally in small 
amounts by those having small gardens or house plants.* 

Fresh Fish Scrap. — Farmers living near the sea coast use a 
great deal of fresh fish scrap and whole fish. This material con- 
tains nitrogen and phosphoric acid but an average composition 
is impossible to give because the moisture content is so variable. 
The main value in fish is derived from the nitrogen they contain. 
Lobster shells, mussels, shrimp waste and King crab are other 
wastes that are used for fertilizer. These are economical ferti- 
lizers when they can be had for nothing, or at a low price, pro- 
vided they do not have to be carted a great distance.* 

Sewage and Sewage Sludge. — Sewage contains about 0.40 per 
cent, of nitrogen, 0.27 per cent, of potash, 0.85 per cent, of 
phosphoric acid and 75-80 per cent, of water. It is not a valu- 
able fertilizer and requires either ditches or porous pipes for its 
proper distribution on the land. 

Sewage sludge is a product obtained by precipitating the sus- 
pended matter in sewage with certain chemicals and squeezing 
out the e.xcess of water. This product contains from 0.60 to 2.3 
per cent, of nitrogen, 0.60 to 2.3 per cent, of phosphoric acid and 
traces of potash. It has some value as fertilizer.* 

Coal ashes sometimes helps to improve the condition of certain 
soils. This material does not contain enough of the essential ele- 
ments to be valuable as fertilizer but its indirect action may help 
to produce better physical properties in soils. This material is 
perhaps more valuable for walks and roads than for fertilizer. 

Lime-kiln Ashes. — When lime and wood are burned together 
in making quicklime the resulting product is known as lime-kiln 



MISCELLANEOUS F'ERTILIZER MATERIALS lOI 

ashes. This product is richer in lime than wood ashes and it 
may be used on soils requiring lime when the price is reasonable. 
It averages 2 per cent, of potash, 0.75 per cent, of phosphoric acid 
and 40 per cent, of lime.* 

Rice Hull Ashes. — In the rice sections the rice hulls are often 
used as fuel in the boilers of rice mills. This product contains 
about 1.2 per cent, of potash, and 0.6 per cent, of phosphoric acid. 

Corn Cob Ashes. — In certain sections of the country corn cobs 
are sometimes used in place of wood for fuel. This product 
carries about 7 per cent, of potash, 2.4 per cent, of phosphoric 
acid and 1 1 per cent, of lime. It is evident that these ashes are 
valuable for soils in need of jxitash. It also contains an appreci- 
able amount of phosphoric acid. Farmers burning corn cobs will 
do well if they save these ashes and apply them to their land. 

Brick kiln ashes are sometimes used for fertilizer. The kind 
of wood burned in brick kilns will influence the value of these 
ashes. They are worth purchasing by those living near brick 
kilns who wish to apply lime, when they can be purchased right.* 

Soot is the black deposit that collects in flues and chimneys 
when coal or wood is burned and is used in England quite ex- 
tensively as fertilizer. Soot from coal averages about 3 per cent, 
of nitrogen in the form of ammonia. It is more valuable in im- 
proving the physical condition of soils than as a fertilizer. Its 
dark color increases soil temperature by absorbing the rays of 
the sun, thus helping plant growth and the action of the soil 
organisms. It lightens heavy soils and is not relished by certain 
insects that damage crops.* 

Street sweepings are sometimes used by gardeners. When they 
contain a large proportion of horse manure they may have a little 
value. However the liquid portions are not saved so that they 
are not as valuable as farm manure. Street sweepings usually 
contain other debris than horse manure which of course de- 
creases their value. Generally speaking, street sweepings should 
not be used unless the expense of hauling is very small. Most 
people would not care to utilize this waste because of the un- 
sanitary nature of it. Debris from houses etc. are liable to con- 
taminate it in which case it would not be a safe fertilizer. 



I02 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

Potassium nitrate, or saltpeter, contains from 12 to 13 per 
cent, of nitrogen and 40 to 45 per cent, of potash. It is an 
excellent fertilizer but the market price prohibits its general use.* 

Ammonium nitrate is a rich nitrogenous salt but it is too ex- 
pensive to employ for fertilizing purposes. 

Silicate of Potash. — Some minerals as feldspathic rock contain 
considerable amounts (12 to 15 per cent, and more) of potash. 
These potash feldspars have been ground to a powder and put 
upon the market for fertilizer from time to time. Experiments 
show this material to be of very low crop producing value.* 

Iron sulphate is produced quite extensively as a by-product in 
the manufacture of steel. Although iron is necessary for plant 
growth most plants do not use more than 15 pounds of iron oxide 
per acre and average soils contain 15 tons of this material per 
acre in the surface soil to a depth of 9 inches. So it is evident 
that soils contain abundant amounts of iron for the needs of 
plants. 

Common salt, or sodium chloride, has been used for many years 
in some of the older countries as a fertilizer. In this country a 
product called agricultural salt has been on the market, which is 
mainly common salt. Most of our soils are rich enough in 
sodium so that applications of common salt are not necessary. 
This material does not furnish any nitrogen, phosphoric acid or 
potash.* 

Powder waste is another product that is principally made up 
of common salt. Some of this material may contain nitrates in 
which case it is more valuable than common salt, although it 
should not be considered unless it can be had for nothing, or 
very cheap. It should be applied in small quantities because of 
the deleterious action that large applications of sodium chloride 
have on vegetation. 

Sulphates of Soda and Ma^esia. — The use of either sulphate 
of soda or magnesia is hardly to be considered on American soils 
except when some special crop is grown that depletes the soil 
of them, which is indeed very rarely. When fertilizers are used 
there is enough of these constituents supplied for the needs of 



MISCELLANEOUS FERTILIZER MATERIALS IO3 

the crop. Most of our soils are well furnished with these con- 
stituents. Common salt is cheaper than sulphates of soda or 
magnesia and when needed will serve the same purpose, namely, 
to render potash available.''' 

Carbonate of magnesia is sometimes found on the market but 
carbonate of lime performs the same functions except that mag- 
nesia is not supplied, so that we need not consider this material 
in our fertilizer problems. 

Ammonium chloride and ammonium carbonate are not good 
fertilizers because they injure plants. Ammonium chloride is 
sometimes called sal-ammoniac and in the pure state it is rather 
expensive. 

Manganese Salts. — Manganese is found in small amounts in 
plants and it is said to stimulate their growth. This element 
is not necessary to apply as soils contain enough of it to satisfy 
the wants of the plant. 



CHAPTER XL 



LIME, GYPSUM AND GREEN MANURES. 

Lime has been used for agricultural purposes for many cen- 
turies, but for how long we do not know. Records show that it 
was used on land before the Christian Era. During the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries the practice of liming the land was 
common in Great Britain and at that time lime was one of the 
principal fertilizers and large applications were often supplied. 

Forms of Lime. — Lime is obtained by burning limestone, chalk, 
or shells. These are all substances rich in carbonate of lime 
(CaCOg). When they are burned the carbonic acid (COo) 
passes off, leaving the oxide of lime (CaO) , which is called quick- 
lime, caustic lime, store lime and burned lime. The oxide of 
lime is usually known as lime. When water is added to this pro- 
duct it is readily absorbed and high heat develops forming hy- 
drate of lime (Ca[OH];o) which crumbles to a powder. This 
is known as slaked lime. Quicklime readily absorbs water and 
therefore slakes when exposed to the air. This is known as air 
slaked lime and is not as completely slaked as when treated with 
water. Quicklime is apt to change to limestone on standing as 
it absorbs carbonic acid from the atmosphere. When quicklime 
is applied to the soil it changes to carbonate of lime. 

One hundred pounds of limestone make about 50 to 56 pounds 
of quicklime which produce about 75 to 85 pounds of water 
slaked lime. The purer the limestone, the more quicklime and 
water slaked lime are obtained.* 

When Soils Need Lime. — A certain amount of calcium carbonate 
should be present in soils as this compound helps to make plant 
food available and keeps the soil in a condition favorable for pro- 
ducing crops. When there is a deficiency of calcium carbonate, 
the soil will most likely be acid or sour. Most farm crops do not 
grow well on sour soils, but certain weeds seem to thrive on 
them, and so it is important to keep soils sweet or stocked with a 
sufficiency of carbonate of lime. The addition of ordinary fer- 
tilizers will not benefit crops on sour soils because the nitrifying 



LIMKj GYPSUM AND GRRKN MANURES IO5 

urg-anisms cannot work to advantage in an acitl medium. There 
may be an ample supply of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash 
in a sour soil and yet good crops cannot be produced because of 
the need of lime. Soils that run as low as 0.2 per cent, of calcium 
carbonate generally need lime. 

How to Find Out "When Soils are Acid. — A simple method that 
is often cft'ective consists of testing the soil with blue litmus 
paper. A few cents worth of this paper may be purchased at a 
drug store. Test the soil as follows : Collect some earth from 
those portions of the field where the plants are poor or sickly. 
Mix the samples of earth together, take a small portion and add 
water to form a paste. Place one end of the litmus paper in this 
mixture and let it remain for about 45 minutes. If the soil is 
sufficiently acid the color of that part of the litmus paper which 
was dipped in the paste will be changed to red. This is not a 
delicate test and is only an indication of a soil badly in need of 
lime. Another way to find out whether your soil needs lime is to 
express about one-half a pound of the suspicious soil to your 
State Experiment Station requesting them to find out if your 
soil needs lime. Or a plot of the suspicious land may be spread 
with a liberal application of lime and the efl:'ect on the crop noted. 
This last method is perhaps the best test. 

How to Apply Lime. — Finely ground limestone, quick lime, or 
water slaked lime may be used to correct acidity in soils. If 
water slaked lime is used it should be applied just as soon as it 
becomes powdered. If quicklime is preferred, it may be dumped 
into small heaps and kept covered with earth until the lime slakes 
or crumbles. 

Lime should be spread in a thin even layer and harrowed in. 
If slaked lime is used it should be harrowed in immediately as it 
changes to the carbonate form on exposure to the air. Some 
farmers use a lime spreader which machine is very eft'ective. 
Lime should be applied some time before planting as it is liable 
to injure the seed. 

The Form of Lime to Use. — Marble dust, ground limestone, 
ground oyster shells, etc. (calcium carbonate), are preferable 



I06 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

for soils rich in organic matter, to prevent the loss of nitrogen. 
Should you desire to correct the acidity of a soil and decompose 
the organic matter quickly, caustic lime or slacked lime should be 
used. On peaty land, old forest land, and other places where 
considerable vegetable matter has accumulated, lime is very 
beneficial as it helps to liberate the nitrogen and form nitrates.* 

Amount of Lime to Apply. — The nature of the soil regulates to 
a certain extent the amount of lime to apply. On soils that are 
acid it should be understood that the rains have carried the 
acidity to the subsoil. Therefore during dry periods the capillary 
water will bring up acid from the subsoil. Enough lime should 
be added to correct the acidity of the surface soil and allowance 
should be made for that which may be brought up from the sub- 
soil. A small application will not last as long as a large quantity 
but will in all probability give greater profits per ton of lime. 
If land must be improved quickly, large applications are the most 
desirable. The nature of the crops grown should also determine 
the amount of lime to use. On sandy soils 800 to i,cxx) pounds 
of slaked lime or 1,600 to 2,000 pounds of ground limestone 
per acre should prove sufficient and for heavy clay soils, 1,600 
to 2,000 pounds of slaked lime or 3,000 to 4,000 pounds of 
ground limestone per acre will prove beneficial. Sometimes 
smaller or larger amounts are used with good results. Some 
farmers use light applications every four or five years while 
others apply large quantities at eight, ten or fifteen year periods. 
The farmer should be the best judge and he can find out after one 
trial the amount of lime necessary to satisfy his conditions and 
when to apply it.* 

Legumes Require an Alkaline Soil. — It is a well known fact that 
alfalfa, clovers, etc., require a soil well supplied with lime for 
the best returns. One has only to visit an alfalfa field in a lime- 
stone section to find out the benefit of an alkaline soil for produc- 
ing leguminous crops. On acid soils the legumes become sickly 
and do not develop tubercles or nodules on their roots. These 
helpful bacteria which gather nitrogen from the air are not active 
in an acid soil and cannot perform their functions. 



LIME, GYPSUM AND GREEN MANURES I07 

Mechanical Action of Lime. — On a heavy clay soil lime loosens 
the soil and makes it lighter and more porous. It relieves some- 
what the tendency of these soils to puddle. It renders them easier 
to work and lessens the stickiness or adhesiveness a great deal. 
We learned that puddling is due to the fine state of division of the 
particles in clay soils. Lime tends to cause a coagulation or floccu- 
lation of these fine soil particles. This action is easily demon- 
strated by placing some clay soil in a glass of water and adding a 
pinch of lime. When the lime is added and the contents of the 
glass well stirred, the soil particles precipitate and settle to the 
bottom of the glass leaving a clear solution of water. 

Lime lessens the tendency of clay soils from cracking because 
it does not shrink in dry weather. For this reason the addition 
of lime to clay soils makes them easier to work. On sandy soils 
lime has an entirely opposite effect than on clay soils. Instead of 
making the soil lighter and more open it binds together the soil 
particles. It increases the capillary power of light soils and thus 
makes these soils better able to stand dry weather. 

Lime does not add any nitrogen, phosphoric acid or potash to 
the soil but sets these constituents free. Therefore the continual 
use of lime will make a soil less productive, hence the saying, 
"Liming makes the father rich and the son poor." 

Lime Decreases Many Fungus Diseases. — Many fungi and moulds 
that prosper in an acid soil are destroyed when lime is added and 
the soil kept alkaline or sweet. Certain rusts, smuts, club root, 
etc., are due to fungi that require a sour soil for their develop- 
ment. Lime seems to favor the potato scab fungus and potatoes 
grown on limed soils usually produce scabby tubers. This fungus 
may be checked in alkaline soils by dipping the seed potatoes in 
a solution of formalin or corrosive sublimate before planting.* 

Gas lime is the refuse lime from the manufacture of coal gas. 
Coal gas is passed over fresh slaked lime which absorbs the im- 
purities, principally sulphur compounds and gases, from the coal 
gas. The presence of sulphur compounds in this product makes 
it unsafe to use because it has a poisonous effect on young pLmt 
growth. It may be applied to the soil provided it is allowed to 



I08 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

thoroughly oxidize (by exposing it to the air for a long time 
in heaps mixed with earth) in which case the injurious com- 
pounds are changed so that they are not harmful. Sometimes it 
is put on the land before being oxidized to get rid of insects and 
if so it should be applied a long time before planting.* 

Gypsum. — This product is sometimes called land plaster. The 
lime is as sulphate in this compound. Gypsum does not contain 
as much lime as good limestone. It is a good fertilizer for 
leguminous crops as clover, alfalfa, etc. The use of gypsum in- 
stead of lime (CaO) is not to be recommended as the real value 
of gypsum is in liberating locked-up potash. Super-phosphates 
contain gypsum and when they are used it would not be necessary 
to apply gypsum. Gypsum seems to keep the soil moist in dry 
weather by absorbing moisture from the air or conserving it in 
the soil. On soils low in potash, gypsum does not seem to be 
beneficial and when soils fail to respond to gypsum an application 
of potash may be needed.* 

Green Manures, — Any crop that is grown and plowed under in 
order to benefit the soil is called a green manure. A green 
manure may help the soil in any of the following ways : 

1. By keeping up the humus supply by furnishing organic 
matter. 

2. By improving the texture of soils, by making heavy soils 
lighter and sandy soils more retentive. 

3. By utilizing the soluble plant food that would otherwise be 
lost if the land was left bare. 

4. By ridding the land of many weeds and thus serve as a 
cleaning crop. 

5. By bringing up plant food from the subsoil to the surface 
soil. 

6. By using a leguminous crop the nitrogen content of the soil 
may be increased, by utilizing the nitrogen from the air. 

7. By preventing the washing of soils, or erosion. 

Classes of Green Manures.— There are many crops used as green 
manures and the section of the country determines to a great ex- 



LIME, GYPSUM AND GREEN MANURES IO9 

tent what crops to select. Green manure crops may be classified 
as leguminous and non-leguminous. 

1. The leguminous green manure crops are those that have the 
power of securing nitrogen from the air and are represented in 
the clovers, cowpea, soy bean, alfalfa, vetches, velvet bean, 
Canada field pea, etc. 

2. The non-leguminous green manure crops are those that 
draw on the soil entirely for their supply of food, and rape, rye, 
oats, buckwheat and mustard are examples of this class. 

Of the leguminous crops the red clover is the most popular in 
the North and the cowpea and clovers in the South. Crimson 
clover and alfalfa are also popular. The vetches and soy beans 
are not used so much as the other mentioned legumes. 

Rye is the most common non-leguminous crop and is often 
pastured in the fall or early winter. 

Leguminous Crops are to be Preferred. — The leguminous crops 
are better than the non-leguminous because they can secure 
nitrogen from the air and increase the soil supply of this con- 
stituent. They also return more nitrogen to the soil when plowed 
under. The non-leguminous plants simply draw on the soil 
for food and when plowed under only add non-nitrogenous matter. 
The principal benefit derived from the non-leguminous plants is 
to save the loss of soluble plant food when a legume cannot be 
selected. The non-leguminous plants are more expensive to 
grow because they require a supply of nitrogen and generally of 
phosphoric acid and potash to insure good growth. The legumes 
only require potash and phosphoric acid and sometimes only 
phosphoric acid. So it is evident that rye, oats, rape, mustard, 
etc., cannot take the place of the legumes in supplying green 
manure as they cost too much to grow and do not return as much 
fertility to the soil.* 

The Best Time to Plow Under a Green Manure. — Crops used for 
green manuring should be plowed under before they become dry. 
When they are plowed under while green and fresh they are more 
readily decayed and prevent the loss of water somewhat from 
light soils. Dry crops plowed under interfere with the use of 
water from the subsoil and on light sandy soils may lower the 



no 



FERTILITY ANI^ FERTILIZER HINTS 



yield of the crop that follows. If possible the green manure 
should be plowed under some two or three weeks before planting 
time to give it a chance to partially decay so as not to injure the 
planted crop and to furnish some food for the young seedlings. 
The Best Time to Grow a Green Manure. — If the soil is poor 
and run down it is sometimes advisable to keep it in a green 
manure for a season or two. Generally, however, green manures 
fit well into rotations and may often be grown when the land is 




Fig. lo. — Pear orchard with cover crop. 



ordinarily idle or between money crops. In the South, crops like 
rye, crimson clover, red clover, vetch, etc. may be grown in the 
winter and turned under in time for the summer crop. In the 
North, rye and vetch may be used as winter crops. Sometimes 
it is advisable to sow a green manure at the time another crop is 
laid by. Then when the crop is harvested the green manure crop 



LIME, GYPSUM AND GREEN MANURES III 

will have grown sufficiently to turn under and the land may be 
sowed to some small grain crop ; or the green manure crop may 
be planted after harvest and remain on the land all winter and 
plowed under in the spring. 

In fruit orchards green manure crops (cover crops) as rye, 
oats, clover, etc., are often sown about mid-summer to absorb 
moisture and available plant food from the soil and to cause the 
buds to mature and cease growth of the wood and leaves. This 
crop is allowed to remain on the soil all winter and in the spring 
it is plowed under. By keeping the land covered during the 
winter leaching of plant food and washing away of soil is 
lessened. 

Deep Rooted Plants Valuable, — Alfalfa, clover, etc., have very 
long tap roots which penetrate the subsoil, thus securing a great 
deal of plant food that would not be within reach of many culti- 
vated plants. These leguminous plants also bring a great deal of 
plant food from the subsoil to the surface soil and leave it there 
for succeeding crops. When these deep roots decay they leave 
openings in the soil which help to increase drainage and aera- 
tion and thus improve the physical condition of soils. 



CHAPTER XII. 

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 

Since i860, when fertilizers were used on a comparatively 
small scale, the fertilizer industry has increased until to-day it is 
of great importance. In i860 the wholesale cost of the output of 
the fertilizer factories was $891,344, in 1890, $39,180,844, in 1900, 
$40,445,661 and in 1905, $50,506,294 or a difference of 
$49,614,950 between the years i860 and 1905. These figures do 
not represent what the consumer paid for fertilizer during these 
years as these amounts cover practically the wholesale cost. The 
above figures are only approximate at the best and in all prob- 
ability they should be larger for the years 1900 and 1905, but they 
will serve to impress one with the magnitude of the fertilizer in- 
dustry in the United States to-day.* 

Causes for the Large Consumption of Fertilizers. — The causes 
for the large and increasing use of commercial fertilizers are 
many. Single crop farming has caused many farms to run down 
in fertility. Many crops have been principally raised. Legumes 
have been grown occasionally or not at all. Green manuring has 
not been practiced enough. Poor drainage has caused losses 
of fertility. Some farms have lost much of their fertile soil by 
erosion. Farm manure has not always been saved and when saved 
it has not been preserved properly. According to Bulletin 140 
by the Kentucky Experiment Station, it is estimated that the 
annual production of farm manure in the United States is equal 
in value to the corn crop at $1.05 per bushel, or nearly two and 
one-half billions of dollars. The most conservative estimate 
would put the waste of farm manure at one-third, an annual loss 
of about $800,000,000.00. This is about eight times the amount 
spent annually in this country for commercial fertilizers. There 
is little wonder that so much of our soil is becoming unproductive. 
The crops have also been sold away from the farm instead of be- 
ing fed to live-stock. Cover and catch crops have not always 
been grown. To sum up, we may say that the fertility of the 
soil has not been maintained, and farms that formerly yielded 



COMMERCIAL FERTILI/.ERS II3 

profitable crops with applications of 200 pounds of commercial 
fertilizer per acre, now require 400 to 600 pounds and sometimes 
800 to 1,200 pounds to produce the same results. 

With the market gardener and trucker conditions are different. 
The demand for vegetables in our large cities has caused the 
market gardener in the north and the trucker in the south to use 
heavy applications of fertilizers to produce profitable crops. 
Many of these crops are heavy feeders and require to be 
marketed or shipped as early as possible, as a few days often 
means a great difiference in the prices received, and so high 
priced quick acting fertilizers are generally used. The truckers 
are often located on sandy soils of low fertility that must have 
plenty of fertilizer to produce money crops. The market gardener, 
who usually lives near or in a city or town, produces crops on 
bnds that would bring a high price for building and other 
purposes, and can hardly ever afiford to allow his land to be idle 
or to be sowed to some soil improving crop, but must have a 
money crop growing continually. The market gardener cannot 
afiford to raise live-stock on such high priced land. So with the 
market gardener and trucker the consumption of fertilizer will 
increase with the demand for their products, and as the popula- 
tion of this country is increasing every year we may expect more 
artificial fertilizers to be used in producing market garden and 
truck crops. With these farmers, and especially the market 
gardener, the use of large quantities of commercial fertilizers is a 
necessity. 

How the General Farmer May Lessen the Use of Commercial 
Fertilizers. — The consumption of commercial fertilizers may be 
reduced a great deal by many farmers. A better system of farm- 
ing should be adopted. A rational rotation system including 
money crops and soil improving crops should be practiced. Leg- 
umes should be included whenever possible in rotations to add 
to the supply of nitrogen and organic matter in the soil. Live- 
stock should be kept and the farm crops marketed through them. 
In this way a two-fold or full value will be obtained, namely, the 
feeding and fertilizer values. Farm manure should be saved 
and preserved. It should be saved to supply humus and fertility 



114 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

to the soil and it should be preserved to prevent losses of the 
essential elements by fermentation and leaching. The land 
should be well drained and tilled. Crops should occupy the 
land continually. Erosion must be prevented. Use commercial 
fertilizers only to supplement the organic matter and those con- 
stituents which should be contained in the soil. Fertilizers are 
not expected to produce crops alone, unless increased amounts 
are used every year. This is well illustrated by an experiment 
conducted at the Louisiana Experiment Station on corn. For 
four years commercial fertilizer only was applied to one plot 
and legumes and farm manure was used on another plot. The 
yield on the plot receiving commercial fertilizer alone, showed 
12 bushels per acre and that on the plot receiving organic matter, 
52 bushels, at the end of four years. 

Fertilizing Materials Used by Manufacturers. — The fertilizing 
materials described in the previous chapters are those that the 
manufacturers draw on for making their mixtures. The farmer 
generally purchases his fertilizer in the mixed state under some 
brand name, as Corn Fertilizer, B. C. Brand, etc., which does not 
indicate the materials of which it is composed. The fertilizer 
materials usually predominate in one constituent while the manu- 
factured fertilizers show usually two or three of the constituents, 
as nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. The manufacturers may 
employ materials that furnish large amounts of a particular con- 
stituent, as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, 
sulphate of potash, muriate of potash, kainit, and Tennessee or 
Florida rock phosphate. He may choose some high grade 
materials as those just mentioned and some low grade materials 
as beet refuse, leather preparations, low grade cotton-seed meal, 
soluble hair and wool waste, low grade bone-meal, etc. So when 
a mixed fertilizer reaches the farmer the identity of the materials 
of which it is composed is not known.* 

Basis of Purchase of Fertilizers. — There are two systems used 
in purchasing fertilizers, namely, the unit system and the ton 
system. 

I. The Unit System. — A unit is 20 pounds or one per cent, of a 
ton. Manufacturers and dealers in fertilizer materials use the 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS II5 

unit system almost entirely. Tankage, bone products, blood, 
azotin, steamed horn and hoof meal, potash salts, nitrogenous 
salts, superphosphates, dry ground fish, raw rock phosphates, 
cotton-seed meal, castor pomace, etc., are all purchased on the 
unit basis. For example, muriate of potash will be quoted at 80 
cents a unit. This means that the actual potash in muriate of 
potash will cost 80 cents for 20 pounds, or 4 cents for one pound. 
Dried blood perhaps will be quoted at $3.30 per unit of nitrogen. 
This means that 20 pounds of nitrogen in dried blood will cost 
$3-30j O'' 163^2 cents for one pound. 

In the unit system of purchasing and selling, the buyer and 
seller usually employ a competent neutral chemist to draw a 
representive sample of the material and settlement is made on 
the chemist's findings. This is indeed an excellent system because 
the buyer pays for just what is present in the material and the 
seller receives compensation for what his product contains. It 
may be said that this system is very satisfactory to the fertilizer 
trade. 

2. The ton basis of purchase is the one commonly used by the 
manufacturer, dealer, etc., in selling to the consumer. The pro- 
ducts, both mixed and unmixed, are sold to the consumer at a 
fixed price per ton of 2,000 pounds. This system is not as 
satisfactory as the unit system because the purchaser does not 
always receive a stipulated amount of the constituents contracted 
for. To be sure, the manufacturers guarantee their products 
to contain given amounts of fertilizer constituents and aim to 
meet or even to exceed their guarantees, but sometimes the 
fertilizers do not reach them in every particular. The prices of 
the fertilizers sold on the ton basis to the consumer do not usually 
fiuctuate with the market, as the manufacturer tries to fix a 
price that will guard against loss, although many of them sell 
their fertilizers at times with very small and sometimes no profit 
when they have a large stock which they do not wish to carry over 
for another season. 

Fertilizer Laws. — In order to protect the consumer and the 
honest manufacturer, several states have passed laws regulating 



Il6 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

the sale of fertilizers. The enforcement of these laws is general- 
ly controlled by the Experiment Stations or the State Boards of 
Agriculture, through a stafif of chemists and inspectors. The 
inspectors, who may or may not be chemists, draw samples of 
the various fertilizers, forward them to the laboratory, and the 
chemist analyzes them to find out if they are as represented. 
The results of the chemists' findings are published in bulletins 
or reports which are sent to the consumers, manufacturers, deal- 
ers, and other interested parties.* 

The Meaning of the Guarantee, — It has been said that the manu- 
facturer, dealer, or jobber must have printed on the bags or tags 
attached to the bags, his name and address, the weight of the 
package, the name, brand or trade mark, and the chemical com- 
position of the fertilizer. This guarantee does not mean that 
each particular shipment, or lot, or bag, that the consumer may 
purchase has been analyzed by the state chemist and that he 
found the stipulated amounts of nitrogen, soluble phosphoric 
acid, reverted phosphoric acid and potash, as the case may be, 
that are printed as the guaranteed chemical analysis on the bags 
or tags. It does mean that the manufacturer says he has fur- 
nished at least those amounts of plant food as stated. 

The Interpretation of the Guarantee. — Some manufacturers do 
not make a simple statement of the guaranteed chemical com- 
position of their brands of fertilizers, but use other terms which 
are equivalent, to be sure, but are misleading to the ordinary 
person not familiar with fertilizer parlance. A few examples 
may serve to illustrate this point. 

Guaranteed Chemical Analysis, No. i. 

Per cent. 

Nitrogen i.oo 

Ammonia 1.22 

Equal to nitrate of soda 6.06 

Total phosphoric acid 1 2.00 

Equivalent to bone phosphate 26.00 

Available phosphoric acid 10.00 

To simplify this guarantee we would state it as: 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 11/ 

Per cent. 

Nitrogen as nitrate i .00 

Total phosphoric acid 1 2.00 

Available phosphoric acid 10.00 

All the other statements omitted in the simpHtied chemical 
guarantee are correct but unnecessary and misleading. The per- 
centage given under "equal to nitrate of soda," and "equivalent 
to bone phosphate" are simply restatements.* 

GUAR.A.NTEED Chemical Analysis, No. 2. 

Per cent. 

Total phosphoric acid 1 1-14 

Equivalent to total bone phosphate 24-30 

Available phosphoric acid 10-12 

Equivalent to available bone phosphate 22-26 

Soluble phosphoric acid 8-10 

Equivalent to soluble bone pho.sphate 17.5-22 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 1-2 

Equivalent to insoluble bone phosphate 2-4.25 

Potash 4-5 

Equivalent to sulphate of potash 7-4-9 

Total nitrogen 2-3 

Equivalent to total ammonia 2.4-3.6 

This is not an exaggerated guarantee but one that is often 
found in the fertilizer trade. 
Simplified the above reads : 

Per cent. 

Total phosphoric acid 11 .00 

Available phosphoric acid 10.00 

Soluble phosphoric acid 8.00 

Insoluble phosphoric acid i .00 

Potash 4.00 

Nitrogen • • • 2 .00 

Or we may further simplify this to read ; 

Per cent. 

Available phosphoric acid 10.00 

Potash 4.00 

Nitrogen 2.00 

It will be noticed that the simplified statements contain the 
n'linimum percentages ; for example, available phosphoric acid is 
guaranteed as 10 to 12 per cent, and in the simplified statement 
it is given as being 10 per cent. This latter figure 10 per cent. 



Il8 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

is all the manufacturer guarantees and the maximum guarantee 
of 12 per cent, is misleading and does not mean anything. It 
seems to be common practice with the manufacturers to use both 
the minimum and maximum guarantees. 

Guaranteed Chemical Analysis. No. 3. 

Per cent. 

Total phosphoric acid 10-12 

Available phosphoric acid 9-10 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 1-2 

Soluble phosphoric acid 6-8 

Equal to available bone phosphate 19.7-22 

Potash 3.5-5 

Nitrogen . . 0.82-1.65 

Ammonia 1-2 

Simplified this guarantee would read : 

Per cent. 

Available phosphoric acid 9.00 

Potash 3.5 

Nitrogen 0.82 

Guaranteed Chemical Analysis, No. 4. 

Per cent. 

Total bone phosphate 32.7-43.7 

Yielding total phosphoric acid 15-20 

Soluble bone phosphate 22-28 

Yielding soluble phosphoric acid 10-13 

Reverted bone phosphate 8.7-10.9 

Yielding reverted phosphoric acid 4-5 

Insoluble bone phosphate 2. 2-4.4 

Yielding insoluble phosphoric acid 1-2 

Simplified this would read : 

Soluble phosphoric acid 10.00 

Reverted phosphoric acid 4.00 

Insoluble phosphoric acid i.oo 

Or we could state it as follows : 

Available phosphoric acid 14.00 

There are many manufacturers who put guarantees on their 
brands that are not misleading and may be easily interpreted 
by the ordinary person.* 



CHAPTER XIII. 



VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS. 
Interpretation of Chemical Analyses. — A chemical analysis of a 
fertilizer may indicate to a great extent the value or suitability 
of it. The following two analyses illustrate this point. 
Chemical Analysis, No. i. 

Per cent. 

Nitrogen as nitrate i .00 

Nitrogen as ammonia. i.oo 

Organic nitrogen 2.00 

Total nitrogen 4.00 

Water solnble phosphoric acid 8.00 

Reverted phosphoric acid 2.00 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 2.00 

Available phosphoric acid 10.00 

Total potash 9.00 

Potash as chloride 2.00 

Potash as sulphate 7.00 

Chemical Analysis, No. 2. 

Per cent. 

Nitrogen as nitrate 

Nitrogen as ammonia 

Organic nitrogen 4.00 

Total nitrogen 4.00 

Water soluble phosphoric acid 2.00 

Reverted phosphoric acid 8. 00 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 2.00 

Available phosphoric acid 10.00 

Total potash 9.00 

Potash as chloride 8.00 

Potash as sulphate i.oo 

Both of the above fertilizers contain equal amounts of nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash and could be stated as follows : 

Per cent. 

Nitrogen 4.00 

Available phosphoric acid 10.00 

Potash 9.00 

Fertilizer No. i contains nitrogen as nitrates and as ammonia 
while No. 2 does not. Both brands contain organic nitrogen ; 
9 



I20 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

No. I containing 2 per cent, and No. 2 carries all of its nitrogen 
in this form. The chemist cannot always tell the source of the 
organic nitrogen. When the organic nitrogen is derived from 
dried blood, azotin, cotton-seed meal, steamed horn and hoof 
meal, and similar nitrogenous organic materials it is valuable but 
when derived from leather preparations, dissolved wool and 
shoddy wastes, etc., it is not so desirable. Therefore the pur- 
chaser would perhaps select Brand No. i for its nitrogen con- 
tent as it is to be supposed that the manufacturer using high 
grade materials as nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia would 
furnish organic nitrogen from high grade materials. 

A glance at the phosphoric acid constituents shows that both 
run 10 per cent, available phosphoric acid but No. i contains 6 
per cent, more phosphoric acid in the soluble form. As soluble 
phosphoric acid distributes more readily in the soil than reverted 
phosphoric acid and is more available as plant food, we would 
naturally prefer Analysis No. i from the phosphoric acid stand- 
point. Glancing at the potash we find that No. i carries 2 per 
cent, as chloride and 7 per cent, as sulphate, while No. 2 shows 
8 per cent, as chloride and i per cent, as sulphate. For crops 
like tobacco, potatoes, sugar-beets, oranges, etc., No. i would 
be the most suitable, since these crops do better with sulphate of 
potash than with muriate of potash. The potash in No. i was in 
all probability derived mostly from sulphate of potash while that 
in No. 2 came mostly from muriate of potash. 

Here is another statement that is used by some chemists in re- 
porting analyses. 

Chemical Analysis, No. 3. 

Per cent. 

Nitrogen 3.00 

Soluble phosphoric acid 7.00 

Reverted phosphoric acid 3.00 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 2.00 

Available phosphoric acid 10.00 

Potash 9.00 

This statement is not so valuable as Nos. i and 2 because the 
forms of nitrogen and potash are not given. The nitrogen may 
all be from nitrate of soda, or sulphate of ammonia, or organic 



VALUxXTlON 01^ FERTILIZKRS 12 1 

sources, or from any two or perhaps be furnished from all of 
these sources. The potash may be as sulphate, or as chloride, 
or as carbonate, or as a mixture of any two or three of these 
forms in any proportion. 

Here is still another statement. 

Chemical Analysis. No. 4. 

I'er cent. 

Nitrogen 4-oo 

Available pho.splioric acid 10.00 

Potash 90" 

This analysis besides not furnishing- the amounts of the forms 
of nitrogen and potash does not give the forms of phosphoric 
acid. Of this lo per cent, available phosphoric acid all of it 
may be as soluble, or as reverted. It may contain both soluble 
and reverted phosphoric acid but in just what amounts we do 
not know. 

The chemical analysis, when the different forms of plant food 
are reported, may often prove of value to those farmers who can 
interpret them and who understand the inlUiencc of the i:)lant food 
forms on profitable crop production. 

Agricultural Values. — The agricultural value of a fertilizer 
is represented by the crop produced. The price that is paid for 
a fertilizer has no bearing on its agricultural value. The agri- 
cultural value will vary with the season, the amount of fertilizer 
used, the nature of the soil, kind of crop, care of the crop, locality, 
insect damage, plant diseases, and many other conditions. It 
cannot be estimated and is often beyond the control of man. 
However, the nature of the materials that make up a fertilizer 
may influence its agricultural value. Market garden crops will 
no doubt do better with fertilizers containing ])lant food in 
available and soluble forms. For example, available phosphoric 
acid will give quicker returns than insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Nitrogen in a soluble form will l)e taken up more readily than 
nitrogen in an organic form and some organic forms of nitrogen 
will be more quickly available than others. In other words 
fertilizers that give u]) their plant food slowly will not have a 
high agricultural value for (|uick growing crojis. 



122 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

Again, the crop to be raised may have a long growing season. 
If such is the case it would not pay to use fertilizer whose plant 
food is all in soluble forms. If the nitrogen is all soluble, as in 
nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, it may be used up or 
lost before the crop has finished growing and some slower acting 
form of nitrogen, as is contained in dried blood, cotton-seed 
meal, tankage, etc., would no doubt give greater crop returns. 

The value of the crop must also be considered, for crops of 
low market value cannot be expected to give profitable returns 
with high priced fertilizers. The cost of a fertilizer of low 
agricultural value may be greater than one that has a high value 
in producing crops. Farm manures, wood ashes, land plaster, 
etc., may be comparatively high in price for the amount of plant 
food they contain or the good they do. 

Commercial Values. — The commercial value of a fertilizer is 
entirely dififerent from the agricultural value. It represents 
the retail cost of raw materials of standard quality in the market, 
from which the commercial or trade value of plant food may be 
calculated. For example, nitrate of soda may be quoted at $50 
a ton. This represents its commercial value. As nitrate of soda 
contains 15.5 per cent, of nitrogen or 310 pounds of nitrogen in 
a ton, its nitrogen has a commercial or trade value of a little 
over 16 cents a pound. An acid phosphate containing 14 per 
cent, of available phosphoric acid may carry a retail price of $14 
a ton, which is its commercial value. The commercial or trade 
value of the available phosphoric acid would be 5 cents a pound, 
since 14 per cent, of available phosphoric acid is equal to 280 
pounds of available phosphoric acid in a ton. Or an acid phos- 
phate may be quoted at $1 per unit. This is its commercial value. 
This means that the retail cost of 20 pounds of available phos- 
phoric acid is $1. The commercial or trade value is then 5 cents, 
a pound. The commercial or trade value does not mean that 
nitrogen at 16 cents a pound will produce 16 cents worth of 
crops, or available phosphoric acid at 5 cents a pound will pro- 
duce crops that will bring 5 cents. These constituents may pro- 
duce crops valued at more or less than 16 and 5 cents respectively, 
depending upon many conditions as season, locality, kind or crop. 



VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS 1 23 

condition of tlie soil, tillage, etc. The commercial or trade value 
only serves as a comparison of the relative values of the different 
forms of plant food in the raw materials. This valuation does 
not represent the cost of the mixed goods. In the manufacture 
of fertilizers the cost of mixing, sacking, dryers, manufacturers' 
profit, long credits, freight, insurance, agents' profits, etc. are 
all added to this commercial or trade value, so that the farmer 
pays much more for plant food than is represented in the com- 
mercial or trade valuation. But the farmer may purchase the 
plant food contained in the raw materials (unmixed), for the 
prices as represented by the commercial or trade values, at those 
points where the retail prices are quoted. To get the fertilizer 
to his farm he will of course have to pay freight. 

Trade Values. — The Experiment Stations of Connecticut, New 
York, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Jersey and Vermont 
make out trade values every year for those materials that are 
most commonly used in the manufacture of mixed fertilizers. 
These values are arrived at by calculating the prices of fertilizer 
materials for the six months preceding March ist, and are ob- 
tained from the leading markets of southern New England and 
the middle northern states. 

Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials 

.AND ChEMICAI.S FOR I909.' 

Cts. per lb. 

Nitrogen in nitrates 16^ 

Nitrogen in ammonia salts 17 

Organic nitrogen in dry and fine ground fish, blood and 

meat and in mixed fertilizers 19 

Organic nitrogen in fine ground bone and tankage 19 

Organic nitrogen in coarse bone and tankage 14 

Phosphoric acid soluble in water 4 

Phosphoric acid soluble in ammonium citrate 3>4 

Phosphoric acid in fine ground bone and tankage t^}^ 

Phosphoric acid in coarse bone and tankage 3 

Phosphoric acid insoluble (in water and in ammonium 

citrate) in mixed fertilizers 2 

Potash as high grade sulphate and in mixtures free 

from muriate f chloride) 5 

Potash as muriate 4X 

Vermont Experiment Station. 



124 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

How Obtained, — To give an idea of how these trade values are 
obtained v^e may presume that the wholesale price of sulphate 
of ammonia for the six months preceding March ist averaged 
$56.80 per ton, or 14.2 cents a pound for the nitrogen. A cer- 
tain amount, usually 20 per cent, is added to this wholesale price 
to cover the cost of handling, insurance, etc., which would raise 
the price to $68 per ton, which would be the retail or commercial 
value of ammonium sulphate. The nitrogen then would be 
represented as carrying a commercial or trade value of 17 cents 
a pound. The trade values on all other fertilizer materials are 
calculated in the same way as described for sulphate of ammonia. 

A Discussion of the Table of Trade Values. — A study of the 
table is interesting. It shows that valuations are given for 
nitrogen as nitrate, as ammonia and as organic nitrogen. The 
trade values for organic nitrogen are also different depending 
upon the source. Soluble phosphoric acid is valued higher than 
reverted phosphoric acid and there is also a trade value for in- 
soluble phosphoric acid. In some states there is no distinction 
made between soluble and reverted phosphoric acid in trade 
valuation and the insoluble phosphoric is often not considered at 
all. The bone products in the foregoing table are valued on their 
degree of fineness ; the finer bone-meals command higher market 
prices than those that are coarse as is shown in the trade valua- 
tions of nitrogen and phosphoric acid. The potash as sulphate 
carries a higher trade value than potash as chloride, but this is 
to be expected because sulphate of potash costs more to manu- 
facture than muriate of potash. There are many fertilizer 
materials not included in the above table. Those included in 
the table are high class products commonly used in New England 
and New Jersey. 

How to Calculate the Commercial Value of a Fertilizer. — Let us 
suppose a chemist analyzes a mixed fertilizer and finds its com- 
])osition to be as follows : 



VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS 1 25 

Chemicai, Analysis. 

Per cent. 

Nitrogen as nitrates 0-5o 

Nitrogen as ammonia ' -S"^ 

Nitrogen as organic 2.00 

Water soluble phosphoric acid 6.00 

Phosphoric acid soluble in ammonium citrate (reverted) 1.80 
Phosphoric acid insoluble (in water and ammonium 

citrate) ' -So 

Potash as sulphate o-4o 

Potash as chloride 3-oo 

The commercial valuation of the ahove fertilizer would be ob- 
tained by multiplying each ingredient by 20 to change to a ton 
basis, and multiplying this product by the trade value of each. 
The sum of these values would be the total commercial value as 
derived from the raw products. 

Commercial Valuation. 

Pounds Trade Coninier- 

per 100 Pound.s value cial value 

or per. per per lb. per 

cent. ton cent.s ton 

Nitrate nitrogen 0.50X20= 10 X 16.5 = |i-65 

Ammonia nitrogen 1.30X20= 26X17 = 4-42 

Organic nitrogen 2.00X20= 40X19 = 7-6o 

Soluble phosphoric acid 6.00 X 20 = 120 X 4 = 4-8o 

Reverted phosphoric acid 1.80 X 20 = 36 X 3-5 = 1-26 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 1.50X20= 30 X 2 = 0.60 

Potash as sulphate 0.40 X 20 = 8X5 =• 0.40 

Potash as chloride 3.60X20= 72 X 425= 3-o6 

Total commercial value* = I23.79 



CHAPTER XIV. 



HOME MIXTURES. 

Definitions. — When fertilizer materials such as tankage, dried 
blood, nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, superphosphate, bone 
meal, muriate of potash, etc.,_^are purchased and mixed at home 
the process is called home mixing and the product a home mix- 
ture. When these fertilizer materials are mixed by the factory 
the product is called a fertilizer or a mixed fertilizer. Most of 
the fertilizer materials contain either one or two constituents and 
only a few carry all three constituents. Most of the mixed 
fertilizers contain three constituents, namely, nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid and potash and are called complete fertilizers because they 
contain the three essential elements. There has been a great 
deal of discussion as to whether fertilizer materials or mixed 
fertilizers are the best for the consumer to purchase. 

Manufacturer's Claims. — The manufacturers claim that mixed 
fertilizers are the best for the farmer to purchase because : 

1. The factory mixed fertilizers are in a fine mechanical con- 
dition. The mixed fertilizers are ground fine and uniformly 
mixed, which is indeed an important consideration to permit of 
an even distribution on the land. 

2. The mixed fertilizers can generally be purchased in the 
locality at most any time and in any amount. 

3. The mixed fertilizers are specially treated with acid and the 
constituents in substances like tankage, dry ground fish, etc., are 
made partially available. 

4. The mixed fertilizers are claimed to be made up in such 
proportions as to satisfy the needs of crops. 

5. The manufacturers often allow the farmer some time to 
settle and often wait until harvest time before getting their 
money. The credit system is in vogue in the South where 
enormous quantities of mixed fertilizers are used. 

Reasons Why the Farmer Should Mix Fertilizer Materials at 
Home. — The mixing of fertilizer materials at home is becoming 



home; mixtures 127 

more popular among the farmers. Some of the reasons why the 
farmer should mix his own fertilizer materials follow : 

1. Plant food is obtained at a lower price. 

2. The farmer knows the materials used. 

3. Unnecessary constituents are not purchased. 
Mechanical Condition of Factory and Home Mixed Fertilizers. — 

The factory mixed fertilizers are usually much better mixed than 
those that are mixed at home. Fertilizer factories are well 
equipped with special machinery to insure producing a uni- 
form product that may easily be distributed on the farm. How- 
ever, the careful farmer may mix his fertilizer materials uniformly 
enough for all practical purposes. 

Mixed Fertilizers More Easily Purchased. — Mixed fertilizers 
can generally be purchased in the locality and the raw materials 
must be ordered away from home which of course takes some 
time. Sometimes certain raw materials are hard to obtain. If 
the farmer starts early enough, say in the winter, the raw 
materials can generally be obtained. 

Mixed Fertilizers Compounded for the Needs of the Crop. — When 
a manufacturer makes up his formulas he has to allow for the 
general existing conditions of soil, climate, and needs of the 
crop, and he cannot expect to make a particular brand that will 
suit each farmer's requirements. When he makes up a potato 
brand he must make a mixture that will suit most of the farmers 
growing potatoes and he cannot expect to meet every condition 
of soil. 

Manufacturers Often Allow Credit. — On the whole, the credit 
system is a poor system for the farmer, for when his crop is 
made he may or may not be ahead financially. Those that live on 
the credit system are usually a year behind and two or three 
poor crops results in the loss of the farm. The manufacturers, 
however, are often too lenient in selling their mixed fertilizers 
on the credit basis as they often have large losses which take 
away much of their profit. 

Plant Food is Obtained at a Lower Price in Home Mixtures. — 
The work of the Experiment Stations has proved conclusively 



128 FERTIUTY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

that plant food is obtained at a lower price when the fertilizer 
materials are purchased and mixed at home than when mixed 
fertilizers are employed. Of course in using home mixtures, 
freight on fillers is saved.* 

Home Mixing Acquaints the Farmer with the Materials Used. — 

When a farmer buys a factory mixed fertilizer he does not always 
know just the sources of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 
He may desire his potash wholly as sulphate ; he may want a part 
of his nitrogen as nitrate and a part in the organic form from 
dried blood. When he buys factory mixed fertilizers he has to 
take the word of the agent or the manufacturer. Most manu- 
facturers are honest men who give what is asked for but when 
you mix at home you know just the amount and kind of materials 
you are using. Again, when you mix your own fertilizer 
materials you deal in the subject "plant food," that is, so much 
nitrogen, so much available phosphoric acid and so much potash, 
and you do away with your old bad habit of purchasing fertilizer 
for a given amount per ton regardless of its plant food value. 

Home Mixing Does Away with the Purchase of Unnecessary 
Constituents. — Manufacturers make many brands of fertilizers 
but as previously said they cannot make one brand that will suit 
the requirements of every individual farmer. For example, two 
farmers in the same locality wish to purchase a mixed fertilizer 
for their corn. One of these farmers may have applied farm 
manure or he may have plowed under a leguminous crop, while 
the other farmer has not supplied his soil with any organic matter 
and his soil may be poor and in need of humus. The fertilizer 
agent or merchant in this particular locality is selling a corn 
fertilizer guaranteed to contain nitrogen, phosphoric acid and 
potash in stipulated amounts. Is it reasonable to suppose that 
this one brand of corn fertilizer is the best fertilizer for both soils 
under the above conditions? The first farmer who has supplied 
farm manure or plowed under a leguminous crop would be 
wasting money in purchasing nitrogen, unless a little in the 
form of nitrate, which may help to give the crop a start. The 
other farmer would need a fertilizer containing both nitrogen as 



HOME MIXTURKS 



129 



nitrate and nitrogen in some desirable organic form to help pro- 
duce a crop. Again, a farmer may be growing cotton, corn, 
sugar-cane, etc., on a soil that is very rich in available potash. 




Fig. II.— Corn is a crop that thrives on farm manure. 



It would certainly be a waste of money for him to purchase a 
fertilizer containing potash. 



130 FKRTILTTY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

When home mixing is practiced the farmer can purchase those 
fertiHzer materials that supply the needed constituents and in the 
most desirable forms for the needs of his soil and crop. 

How to Purchase Fertilizer Materials — The large consumer 
should certainly try home mixing and find out its advantages. 
The small farmer may find it impracticable to purchase other 
than factory mixed fertilizers. However, several small consum- 
ers may often advantageously club together and purchase 
fertilizer materials in mixed carload lots. Many manufacturers 
will gladly mix fertilizer materials for the farmer when the order 
is large enough. Of course the farmer must know just the 
amounts and kinds of materials he wishes wlien he orders in this 
way. 

To purchase fertilizer materials to mix at home, it is necessary 
to start early, say in the early winter, so that they may be mixed 
before the heavy spring work starts. Quotations should be 
secured from dififerent parties in the nearest or nearby fertilizer 
markets. In most large cities bids can be secured. Be ready 
to pay cash because these raw materials are not usually sold on 
credit. Buy on the guarantee and if the constituents, nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash fail to reach their guarantees de- 
mand a rebate. This can be easily arranged by making a con- 
tract with the manufacturer or broker. 

How to Mix Fertilizer Materials at Home. — The fertilizer ma- 
terials may be mixed in a wagon box, or better, on a tight barn 
floor, or a floor covered with canvas. Whenever chemicals as 
nitrate of soda, potash salts, etc. are used, they should be well 
broken up and rendered as fine as possible. In mixing, the light 
bulky materials as dried blood, cotton-seed meal, dry ground fish, 
etc., should be put on the bottom of the floor and on top of these 
spread the other materials. The materials should be spread even- 
ly and then turned over and over and thoroughly mixed by shovel- 
ling. It takes considerable time to mix fertilizer materials so 
that the mixture is uniform. After the mixing is completed the 
fertilizers should be bagged and kept in dry storage until ready 
for use. If the mixture predominates in concentrated salts, some 



HOMI-: MIXTURKS I3I 

t-arth ina\- he incorporated to insure a more even mixture. It 
should be remembered that the chief advantage of buying factory 
mixed fertihzers is that they are better mixed and tlie farmer 
cannot spend too much time in tlie process of thoroughly mixing 
his fertilizer materials.* 

How to Calculate Percentages from Known Amounts. — Suppose 
you want to fmd out the analysis of a mixture made up of the 
following : 

Mixture. 
600 lbs. acid phosphate analyzing 14 Jo available phosphoric acid 
150 lbs. snlphate of ammonia analyzing 20 % nitrogen 
100 lbs. sulphate of potash analyzing 50 fc potash. 

850 lbs. Total. 

To find out the number of pounds of available phosphoric acid, 
nitrogen and potash in the above mixture, make the following 
multiplication. 

6 X 14 = 84 lbs. available phosphoric acid 
1.5 X 20 = 30 lbs. nitrogen 
I X S*-* = 50 lbs. potash, 

To calculate the percentages of available phosphoric acid, 
nitrogen and potash, divide the amounts of the constituents by 
the total amount of the mixture. 

Available phosphoric acid, lbs. 84 :- 850= 9.88 % available phosphoric acid 

Nitrogen lbs. 30 -^ S50 = 3.53 % nitrogen 

Potash lbs. 50 -T- 850 = 5.88 % potash. 

If percentages are wished when one of the materials contains 
two constituents, the calculations may be made as follows : 

Mixture. 

200 lbs. dissolved bone analvzing \ '^ t' available phosphoric acid 

** I. 2.5 % nitrogen 

100 lbs. nitrate of soda analyzing 18. 84 % ammonia 

50 lbs. carbonate of potash analyzing 64.00 % potash. 

350 lbs. Total. 

The dissolved bone superphosphate furnishes two constituents, 
available phosphoric acid and nitrogen, so we must take these 
into consideration in our calculations. 



132 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

The nitrate of soda is given as carrying an equivalent of 18.84 
per cent, of ammonia. To convert ammonia into nitrogen we 
must multiply by the factor 0.823. 

18.84 fc ammonia -J 0.823 -" i5-5 % nitrogen. 

Then : 

2 X 15 ^= 30 o lbs. available phosphoric acid 

2 X 2.5 = 5.0 lbs. nitrogen from dissolved bone superphosphates 

' X 15-5 = 15-5 lbs. nitrogen from nitrate of soda 

0.5 X 64 = 32.0 lbs. potash. 

The percentages in this mixture would be : 
Available phosphoric acid lbs. 30 -r- 350 ^= 8.57 Jr available phosphoric acid 

Nitrogen lbs. 20.5 -^ 350 = 5.85 % nitrogen 

Potash lbs. 32 -^ 350 = 9. 14 % potash. 

How to Calculate Amounts from Known Percentages.^If 2,000 

pounds of a mixture analyzing 

Available phosphoric acid 7 per cent. 

Nitrogen 5 per cent. , and 

Potash 6 per cent. 

is desired from 

Acid phosphate analyzing 16 % available phosphoric acid. 
Calcium cyanamid '" 17 % nitrogen, and 

Muriate of potash " 50 'r potash. 

it may be calculated in the following way : 

First find out the number of pounds of available phosphoric 
acid, nitrogen and potash that would be required. Since 2,000 
IS 20 times 100 we may mtdtiply the percentages by 20. 
20 X 7 ( >^ avail, phos. acid) — 140 lbs. avail, phos. acid required for 2,000 lbs. 
20 X 5 ( ^ nitrogen) = 100 lbs. nitrogen " " " " 

20 X 6 ( %> potash ) == 1 20 lbs. potash " " " " 

To determine the number of pounds of acid phosphate, calcium 
cyanamid and muriate of potash needed to give the analysis 
desired, we may divide the pounds of available phosphoric 
acid, nitrogen and potash by the percentages that the materials 
analyzed. 
Avail, phos. acid lbs. 140 -^ i& 'r := S75 lbs. acid phosphate required 
Nitrogen " 100 ^ 17 % = 5S8 lbs. calcium cynamid required 

Potash " 120 -7- 50 'r ■= 240 lbs. muriate of potash required 

Total = 1 ,703 lbs 



HOME MIXTURES 133 

We have only 1,703 pounds and not 2,000 pounds the amount 
desired. To make 2,000 pounds an addition of 297 pounds of 
some make weight material as sand, earth, gypsum, etc., is 
necessary. 

Supposing' we wished to substitute kainit, analyzing 12 per 
cent, of potash, for the muriate of potash in the above mixture. 
By calculating as explained above we find that it would require 
1,000 pounds of kainit to analyze 6 per cent, of potash. This 
amount would make our total add up to 2,463 pounds, or 463 
pounds more than we wish. This shows that kainit could not be 
used to supply all of the potash in a 2,000 pound mixture of the 
above analysis made from such materials. We could however 
supply one-third of the potash from kainit and two-thirds from 
muriate of potash. 

Potash lbs. from kainit 40 -^ 12 % == 333 lbs. kainit 

Potash lbs. from muriate 80 -^- 50 % = 160 lbs. muriate of potash. 

Assembling the potash salts, acid phosphate and calcium cyan- 
amid we have : 

Pounds 

Acid phosphate S75 

Calcium cj^anamid 58S 

Kainit 333 

Muriate of potash 160 

Total 1 ,956 

By using kainit and muriate of potash in the above proportions 
only 44 pounds of filler would be necessary to add to make 2,000 
pounds. "*' 



CHAPTER XV. 



A FEW REMARKS ABOUT FERTILIZERS. 

Brand and Trade Names. — There are too many farmers who 
purchase fertihzers on the brand or trade name and not on the 
plant food these fertihzers contain. The manufacturers are well 
acquainted with the importance of selling their fertilizers under 
attractive names. Some of the manufacturers even go so far as 
to have their brand names copyrighted to prevent their com- 
petitors from using them. Some of the older brand or trade 
names are well known by all the farmers in the locality Vv'here 
they have been sold from year to year and many of these farmers 
purchase Dixie Cotton Fertilizer, Great Western Wheat Fertili- 
zer, Home Mixture, Standard Special Tobacco Manure, Cele- 
brated Potato Fertilizer, Royal Corn Special, etc., from year 
to year without ever knowing their plant food content. The 
name sounds good to these farmers, the fertilizer has a good 
strong odor, the right color, and with some farmers the proper 
taste. These are brand and ton farmers and not plant food 
farmers. These farmers will tell you that their fathers used 
these same fertilizers. 

To show that the name is no indication of the composition and 
suitableness of a fertilizer for a crop, the following data is sub- 
mitted. In the state of Massachusetts for the year 1909, 
out of 66 brands sold as potato fertilizers, 46 contained potato 
as the only crop name, and 20 were sold in conjunction with other 
crop names as potato, hop, and tobacco ; potato and root crop : 
potato and tobacco ; potato and vegetable ; corn and potato ; 
potatoes, roots and vegetables ; onion and vegetables. Twelve com- 
panies put out 2 brands, 5 put out 3 brands, and 3 put out 4 brands. 
The nitrogen guaranteed varied from 0.80 to 3.71 per cent., the 
available phosphoric acid from 4 to 9 per cent., and the potash 
from 2 to 10 per cent. All of these potato fertilizers could not 
have been the best for the farmer to purchase. The manu- 
facturers evidently cater to the trade and some of them put out 
2 to 4 brands so as to be able to sell one of them to the farmer, 



A FEW REMARKS ABOUT FKRTILI/KRS 135 

the brand depending upon the price the farmer is willing to pay. 
Many of these fertilizers were high grade but the farmer should 
consult the plant food guarantee and not the name in selecting 
fertilizer. Those that were sold for corn and potato, tobacco and 
potato, vegetables, root crops antl potatoes, etc., either do not 
meet the requirements of these crops, or else the purchaser is 
wasting money in buying excesses of ])lant food. 

Some manufacturers ])ut out two or three different brands made 
from the same goods and guaranteed the same. Thus we will 
find Dixie Cotton Fertilizer and Corn King Guano on t\vj market 
with the same guarantee bagged from the same pile of goods, and 
sold for different crops. Sometimes two different brand names 
are used for the same material to be sold for one crop. For 
example. Golden Imperial and Special Mixture may be sacked 
from the same material, carry the same guarantee, and be sold 
for one crop. The writer has seen two agents, one a merchant 
and the other a farmer, selling the same fertilizer under diff'erent 
names in the same village. The farmer, who was the least suc- 
cessful in disposing of his lot thought and 1 guess still thinks 
that the merchant had a better brand. These fertilizers of course 
sold for the same price and the merchant sold three times as 
much as the farmer, because he was a bit more ])opular and had a 
better stand. So you see the brand name helps to sell fertilizer. 
The farmer should buy on the plant food content and not by the 
name or per ton. 

The manufactm-ers also often sell sui)erphosphates made from 
rock phosphates under the name of dissolved bone, and mixtures 
of superphosphates (made from rock) and potash, as dissolved 
bone and potash. We have learned that dissolved bone contains 
nitrogen and phosphoric acid and superi)hc)sphates made from 
rock only carry phosphoric acid. So when dissolved bone or a dis- 
solved bone and potash are sold w'ithout any nitrogen guaranteed 
you can rest assured that the material was made from rock. 
However, the soluble phosphoric acid from rock superphosphates 
is just as valuable as that from dissolved bone, and the reverted 
is perhaps about eciually valuable from these two phosphates.* 



136 rKRTILlTY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

How to Purchase a Fertilizer. — Some time before you intend 
to purchase your fertilizer write to your Experiment Station or 
State Board of Agriculture for bulletins on the crops you in- 
tend to raise and also for a fertilizer bulletin. These bulletins 
may be had free of charge. Study these bulletins. In the 
bulletins on crops you will no doubt learn the plant food reqaire- 
ment, that is, the amounts and kinds of plant food most suitable 
for the crops you are interested in. The fertilizer bulletin will 
no doubt acquaint you with some timely suggestions on how to 
purchase fertilizers and will also give you the names, guarantees, 
analyses, and valuations of the fertilizers sold in your state. 
You can in all probability select a fertilizer that will meet your 
requirements. If any element as nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash is not needed, do not waste your money by purchasing 
a complete fertilizer but select one that contains the constituents 
you need and in the form or forms you desire. You are now 
ready to talk business with your merchant or dealer. Find out 
from him if he has the particular fertilizer you wish. Perhaps 
he has not it in stock and he will no doubt tell you he has some- 
thing just as good. ]f the amount and kind of plant food that 
you wish is present in the brand that he has, why it is just as 
good and if not it is not what you want. No doubt the factory 
for which he is agent puts out a fertilizer of the composition 
you desire ; you can find this out by referring to your fertilizer 
bulletin. If so, you may be able to get your merchant to order 
it for you. If his factory has not got it buy from one that has. 
You have your fertilizer bulletin and you can easily write for 
your fertilizer and perhaps save the agent's profit. 

Study the Guarantee.— ^'ou have learned that many of the 
fertilizer materials as cotton-seed meal, tankage, bone-meal, dry 
ground fish, etc., do not always contain the same amounts of 
fertilizer constituents and are quite variable in composition. 
Therefore do not buy any of these products just because they 
are so named. Consult the guarantee and find out how much 
plant food is offered for a certain price.* 

Fertilizers Should Reach their Guarantees. — The manufacturers, 



A FEW REMARKS ABOUT FERTILIZERS I37 

as a whole, are endeavoring to do an honest business. In mak- 
ing their mixtures they aim to give a little more plant food than 
they guarantee, so that the fertilizer will meet the guarantee 
under reasonable conditions. The bulletins of the different 
states setting forth the results of fertilizer inspection, show that 
the majority of the factory mixed fertilizers exceed the guar- 
antee. But sometimes fertilizers fail to reach the guarantee 
in all constituents. Factory mixed fertilizers often fall below 
the guarantee in one element but exceed the guarantee in other 
elements so that the relative value is above the guaranteed value. 
Of course the manufacturer should furnish the consumer with 
fertilizer that reaches its guarantee in all elements as the pur- 
chaser has a right to expect this. Such variation is often due 
to poor mechanical mixture as the manufacturer usually puts 
in enough of the raw materials to exceed the guarantee in all 
constituents. When a shipment of fertilizer fails to meet its 
guarantee in one or more elements, and runs above the guarantee 
in one or more elements, the purchaser should give the manu- 
facturer some consideration and settle on an equitable basis 
and allow the manufacturer for whatever excess that may be 
present in any of the elements, within reasonable limits. If the 
purchaser contracts for a certain amount or amounts of con- 
stituents and they fall materially below the guarantee a rebate 
should be demanded.* 

Fertilizers do not Deteriorate Much on Standing. — The mixed 
fertilizers and the raw materials do not change much when 
kept in dry storage. The mixed fertilizers are usually com- 
pounded from materials that do not attack and set free the 
nitrogen present. The soluble phosphoric acid may revert and 
change to insoluble phosphoric but not to any appreciable ex- 
tent. Therefore should a farmer have some fertilizer left over 
from a past season he may rest assured that it is still valuable 
provided it has been kept in a dry place. If fertilizer gets wet 
from rain or becomes very moist from any cause, there may be 
considerable losses of plant food.* 

The Time to Apply Fertilizer. — Nitrate of soda, sulphate of 



138 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

ammonia, and calcium nitrate are soluble in water and are not 
fixed in the soil. They should be applied in small quantities and 
at the proper time, or when nitrogen is needed, to give the 
best results. When large applications of these materials are 
made, some of the nitrogen may be lost by leaching. These 
fertilizer materials should never be worked into the soil too 
deeply as they may be lost by leaching before the plant can 
appropriate them. The organic materials furnishing nitrogen 
all have to be oxidized and converted into nitrates before they 
may readily be acquired as plant food. These materials may be 
applied early enough so that they may be acted upon by the soil 
organisms and partially decomposed to furnish food for the 
young plant. The very slowly available organic substances 
will of course be decomposed more slowly than dried blood, cot- 
ton-seed meal, tankage, steamed horn and hoof meal, castor 
pomace and similar substances. One of the functions of nitro- 
gen is to produce growth. It would be wasteful to apply any 
nitrogenous substance to hasten maturity. It seems almost un- 
necessary to make this statement but some farmers use nitrate 
of soda late in the season to help fill out ears of corn after the 
crop has been made. If nitrate of soda is added in the middle 
of the growing period before the ears are formed it will help to 
produce more vigorous growth. Generally speaking, the nitrog- 
enous fertilizers may be applied in the spring at planting time 
and during the growing period when needed. 

Phosphoric acid is readily fixed in the soil. When soluble 
phosphoric acid is added from superphosphates, it becomes well 
distributed in the soil, because of its fine mechanical condition, 
and changes to insoluble forms which are not apt to be lost by 
leaching. Superphosphates are very beneficial to young crops 
and tend to produce strong plants that can better resist the 
attacks of fungi and insects. Superphosphates may be applied 
before or during planting time. Raw bone-meal and ground 
rock phosphate may be applied at most any time because they 
are slowly available ; but other fertilizers carrying phosphoric 
acid in the available form should be applied just before, or at 
planting time. 



A FliW REMARKS ABOUT FERTILIZERS I39 

Potash is very (|uickly fixed in the soil by the double silicates, 
so that it is difficult to distribute it evenly. Potash may be 
applied sometime before planting so that the plowing and har- 
rowing may help to mix it with the soil and insure a uniform 
distribution. 

In mixed fertilizers we have found that any combination of 
fertilizer materials may enter into their composition. There 
may be nitrate of soda, organic materials, superphosphates, and 
potash salts present in these fertilizers and so in the application 
of them we must consider the properties of all the fertilizer 
materials. It is generally best to apply these fertilizers in the 
spring. Sometimes an additional application during the grow- 
ing period will help to force the crop. When much fertilizer 
is to be applied, especially on sandy soils, part of it may be 
applied in the spring and part later on when the crop may be 
backward or need forcing. 

Crops like wheat which are sown in the fall need fertilizer 
at that time and also a light dressing of some nitrogenous fer- 
tilizer in the spring to help it recover from the winter. Some 
of the market garden crops require fertilizer at planting time 
and at sht^-t intervals during the growing period. 

How Fertilizers are Applied. — Fertilizers are usually broad- 
cast, partly broadcast and partly in the drill or hill, and in the 
drill or hill. When heavy applications are applied, broadcast- 
ing is perhaps the best "method. The fertilizer may be applied 
after the last plowing and harrowed into the top part of the sur- 
face soil with a wheel harrow or some kind of a cultivator. In 
this way the fertilizer will become well mixed with the soil. If 
a broadcast distributor is not used, one-half of the fertilizer 
may be applied by walking north and south and the other half 
by walking east and west. In this way the fertilizer should be 
uniformly applied. When home mixtures containing farm 
manure or fertilizers mixed with manure are used, the manure 
spreader may be employed to distribute the fertilizer. 

Some farmers apply fertilizer partly by broadcasting and part- 
ly in the drill or hill. This is an excellent practice for some 



I40 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

crops and on some soils. That which is appHed in the drill or 
hill furnishes plant food during the first growth before the roots 
are developed and that which is sown broadcast helps the later 
growth when the roots spread out. In this system of applying 
fertilizers it is perhaps better to apply most of the fertilizer 
broadcast. When farm manure is used it may all be spread 
broadcast and the fertilizer used to supplement it, which is no 
doubt quick acting, put in the drill or hill. Potatoes, corn and 
market garden crops are often fertilized in this way. 

With small grain, roots and other crops with small root 
systems, fertilizers are often applied wholly in the drill or hill. 
Great care should be taken in applying fertilizer in this way to 
keep the fertilizer away from the seed. Most fertilizers contain 
some nitrate of soda, potash salts, or other materials that will 
injure the seed if they come in contact with it. Therefore a 
little earth should separate the seed from the fertilizer. The 
fertilizer distributors usually cover the fertilizer sufficiently to 
protect the seeds. When fertilizer is applied in the hills it 
should be spread over the place where the hill is to be and not 
applied all in one place. Earth should be spread over it as in 
drill application. 

When fertilizer is to be applied during the growing season 
it may be distributed on both sides of the plants to the center 
of the row and worked in with a cultivator. On many hoed 
crops this method is used. It is also advisable on light soils 
that are subject to leaching. On these soils sufficient fertilizer 
may be applied at planting time to give the crop a start and the 
remainder during those periods in the growing season when 
the crop needs nourishment or wishes to be forced for an early 
market. 

When fertilizers are applied to trees and bvishes they should 
be distributed in a circle around the tree ; the radius of which 
is equal to the height of the tree or bush. They should be 
worked into the soil by shallow cultivation. The feeding roots 
of many trees are near the surface and extend to quite a dis- 
tance from the base of the tree so that by applying the fer- 



A FEW REMARKS ABOUT FERTILIZERS 



141 



tilizer for some distance from the tree, the roots are better able 
to assimilate it and the soil organisms which render it avail- 
able can act upon it more readily. 

It is Profitable to Use Fertilizers? — Every farmer should be 
able to decide this question for himself. The nature of the 
crop and the condition and fertility of the soil will determine 
whether fertilizers should be used. If extensive farming is 




•Fig. 12.— Liberal fertilization is usually profitable when growing truck crops. 

practiced and large crops are grown on small areas fertilizers 
are generally required. Market garden and truck crops general- 
ly more than pay for the liberal use of fertilizer. When market 
garden and truck crops are grown on high priced land large 
applications of fertilizer are necessary to produce ma.ximum 
crops to insure profitable returns on the investment. In some 
sections potatoes, onions, tobacco, oranges, and other crops re- 
ceiving large amounts of fertilizer give profitable returns. 



142 FKRTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

If the soil is kept in good physical condition the use of ferti- 
Hzers is more profitable than on soils not properly cared for. 
On poor soils the use of fertilizers is necessary for crop pro- 
duction, for without them a profitable crop cannot be produced. 
On farms where a systematic rotation is practiced, and farm 
manures and green manures are employed, the use of fertilizer 
to supplement the deficiencies of the soil is usually very pro- 
fitable, while on farms where one crop farming is continued, the 
response to fertilizers is not so satisfactory. The farmer can 
keep his soil in good condition and profit by the use of fertilizers. 
Fertilizers should not always be blamed for unprofitable re- 
turns as the trouble generally rests with the farmer who is care- 
less in his methods. Farmers should spend a great deal of time 
tilling the soil and not expect the fertilizer to do all the work. 

Sometimes fertilizers do not prove profitable because the soil 
is acid or too alkaline. If these conditions are corrected the 
use of fertilizers is often profitable. 

It should be remembered that some fertilizers like raw bone- 
meal, ground rock phosphate, etc., do not give up all of their 
plant food during the first season but may help the crops for 
two or three years and prove profitable in this way. 

Amount of Fertilizer to Use. — Enough fertilizer should be used 
to produce profitable crops. This amount depends upon a great 
many factors, as the system of farming, the nature of the soil, 
the crop to be raised and its value, the fertility of the soil, 
the value of the land, etc. Frequent light applications are usual- 
ly more profitable than occasional heavy applications. Market 
garden and truck crops require more fertilizer than the staple 
crops. From 500 to 2,500 pounds of fertilizer are used for 
market garden, truck and special crops, and 300 to 1,000 pounds 
for the staple crops, unless previous experience has shown that 
more or less than these amounts are necessary and profitable. 

The following table shows in pounds per acre the quantities 
of the elements suggested for use in available form, in fertilizers 
for the crops indicated.* 



Crops 



Nitrogen 



Phosphorus- j Potassium- 



Alfalfa 5-IO 

Apples ! 8-16 

Asparagus 20-40 

Barley 1 2-24 

Beans \ S""-' 

Beets 20-40 

Blackberries I 15-30 

Buckwheat 15-3" 

Cabbage j 40-80 

Carrots j i5-3" 

Cauliflower 40-80 

Celery ' 40-80 

Cherries ] 10-20 

Clover 5-10 

Corn 10-20 

Cucumbers 30-60 

Currants 10-20 

Egg plant 40-80 

Flax 1 0-20 

Gooseberries io-2t) 

Grapes 8-16 

Grass for pastures 1 5-30 

Grass for lawns 20-40 

Grass for meadows 1 5-30 

Hops I 20-40 

Horse-radish \ 1 5-30 

Lettuce 4080 

Millet 15-30 

Muskmelons 1 30-60 

Nursery stock 1 0-20 

Oats ; 12-24 

Onions I 45-9" 

Parsnips ! 20-40 

Peaches | 15-30 

Pears ! 8-16 

Peas I 5-10 

Plums i 10-20 

Potatoes 30-60 

Pumpkins ; 30-60 

Ouinces 8-16 

Radishes ! 1 5-30 

Raspberries 1 2-24 

Rye 12-24 

Sorghum i 10-20 

Spinach \ 15-30 

Squashes I 30-60 

Strawberries 25-50 

Tobacco ; 30-60 

Tomatoes ! 25-50 

Turnips 20-40 

Watermelons 30-60 

Wheat 12-24 



12.5-25 
12.5-25 
12.5-25 
8.5-17 
12.5-25 
jo-20 

12.5-25 

12.5-25 

30-60 

15-30 
30-60 

20-40 
15-30 
12.5-25 
15-30 
20-40 

IO-2t> 
20-40 
10-20 
10-20 
12.5-25 
12.5-25 
10-20 

12.5-25 
15-30 
10-20 
20-40 

12.5-25 
20-40 
10-20 
8.5-17 
25-50 
25-50 

17-5-35 
12.5-25 
12.5-25 

i5-.iO 
'7-5-35 

20-40 

I 2 5-25 
15-30 

17.5-35 
8.5-17 
15-30 
25-50 
20-40 
25-50 
20-40 

15-30 

10-20 

20-40 

8.5-17 



30- 60 
40- 80 
3<i- 60 
20- 40 
30- 60 
30- 60 
30- 60 
30- 60 
75-150 
35- 70 
75-150 
50-100 

35- 70 
30- 60 

25- 50 

50-ICK> 

30- 60 
75-150 
25- 50 
30- 60 

35- 70 
3(^1- 60 

25- 50 
30- 60 
So- 1 60 
30- 60 
60-120 
30 60 
5()-i(.)o 
25- 50 
25- 50 
70-140 
40- 80 

45- 90 
40- 80 
30- 60 
35- 70 
55-110 
50-100 
40- 80 
35- 70 
50- I 00 

25- 50 
25- 50 
35- 70 
50-100 
60-120 
60-120 
30- 60 
30- 60 
50-100 
io- 20 



' Bui. 169, Kansas Experiment Station. 

- To change phosphorus to phosphoric acid multiply by 2. 
to potash, multiply by 1.2. 



and to convert potassium 



144 rERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

NOTES. 

The following notes refer to tables, experiments, statistics, 
discussions and other interesting data that may be found in 
Halligan's Soil Fertility and Fertilizers : 

Page 3 — A discussion on evidence to show that other plants gather nitro- 
gen from the air. 
Page 5 -Distribution of elements in the earth's crust and air ; composition 

of the air. 
Page 8 — Table showing the elements that make up plants. 
Page 9 —The distribution of the mineral elements in plants and a full dis- 
cussion of the ash in plants. 
Page II — The per cent, of ash and the mineral elements that constitute the 

ash are given for several vegetable substances. 
Page 14 — Table of the amount of plant food in typical American soils from 

different states. 
Page 15 — Estimates of plant food in soils with yields of crops. 
Page 18 — Table of temperatures of different classes of soils. 
Page 18 — The average mean monthly range in temperature of the air and 

soil for twelve years at Lincoln, Nebraska. 
Page 18 — Standard measurements of soil particles and mechanical analyses 

of soils. 
Page 19 — Table of chemical and mechanical composition of different types 

of soils. 
Page 21 — Table showing the upward movement of water in different types 

of soils. 
Page 22— A table showing the number of bacteria found in a gram of soil 

during some part of the growing period. 
Page 22— Two tables that demonstrate how manure helps nitrification at 

different periods of the growing season. 
Page 26 — Composition of drainage waters from plots of a wheat field. 
Page 26- -Table giving the amounts of nitrogen removed by different farm 

crops. 
Page 27 — Data showing the amount of nitrogen lost from bare soils and 

wheat land ; comments on the same. 
Page 34 — Data concerning the effect of a rotation of crops on the humus 

supply. 
Page 34 — Crop rotations practiced in different sections of the United States. 
Page 34— Fertility removed by farm produce ; loss of fertility by exclusive 

grain farming and stock farming. 
Page 36— Tables showing actual results obtained from different kinds of 

animals performing different kinds of work on the value of manure. 
Page 36 — Composition of straws, leaves and sawdust. 



NOTICS 145 

Page 37 — Data given the amount of manure produced by the horse per 
year, the composition, and the amount of straw necessary to absorb 
the liquid portion. Also data on the amount of manure produced by 
the cow and the hog, and the composition of these manures. 

Page 38 — The amount of manure produced by the sheep per year, its com- 
position, and the amount of straw necessary to absorb the liquid 
portion. 

Page 39 — Composition of hen, fowl and bat manures ; amount of manure 
produced by different kinds of fowl. 

Page 39 — Experiments by feeding steers different feeds, giving the varia- 
tions in the nitrogen content of the manure produced and the crop 
returns from these manures. Table and discussion on the commercial 
value of manure. 

Page 40— Results of experiments on the lasting effects of manure for a 
period covering many years and the jield of crops from manured and 
unmanured plots. 

Page 41— Tables and data showing the losses by leaching on horse manure, 
cow manure, and a mixture of horse and cow manure. 

Page 42 — Table of composition of gases in manure heaps and the effect of 
keeping manure heaps moist. 

Page 45— The percentage of water in unmanured and manured wheat and 
barley fields, together with considerable discu.ssion on the losses and 
retention of water in these fields. Also, the effect of manure in dry 
and wet seasons, oti the yield of crops for 51 years. 

Page 50 — A description of the process employed in manufacturing cotton- 
seed meal. 

Page 50 — Commercial classification of cotton-seed meal. 

Page 52 — A description of rape meal. 

Page 54 — Another method used in treating horns and hoofs. The produc- 
tion of fertilizers by packing houses. 

Page 56 — Analyses of nitrogenous guanos, with a list of the deposits that 
have been and are being worked, with comments on guanos. 

^3.ge 57 — Composition of bat guanos. 

Page 57 — New process for recovery of ammonia from coal. Extent of 
manufacture of ammonium sulphate. 

P^ge 57 — How to detect adulteration. Table showing percentages of ammo- 
nia, pure ammonium sulphate, nitrogen and possible impurities in 
commercial sulphate of ammonia. 

Page 58 — Origin of deposits, amounted exported to date, value of, process 
of manufacture, and analyses of crystals. 

Page 58 — Effect of continued use of nitrate of soda. 

Page 59 — A full description of the process of manufacture, output and 
value, and comments on calcium nitrate. 

Page 59 — The process of manufacture, composition and comparative experi- 
ments with ammonium sulphate are given. 



146 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

Page 59— Table of composition of high grade nitrogenous products. 

Page 62 A full description of wool waste, shoddy, etc. 

Page 63 — A more complete discussion on garbage tankage. 

Page 64 — Vegetation and laboratory experiments with several high and low 
grade nitrogenous substances. Also a description and discussion of 
these materials. 

Page 67 — Statistics giving the amounts of nitrogenous materials used in 
manufacturing commercial fertilizers for 1900 and 1905. The total 
ammonia contained in manufactured fertilizers ; nitrogen removed by 
different farm crops. 

Page 68— Table showing the value of nitrogen in increasing yields for a 
period of 56 years, with a discussion of the same. 

Page 70 — Composition of raw bones. 

Page 71— Composition of good and poor steamed bone-meals. 

Page 71 — Composition of raw and steamed bones for comparison. 

Page 72 — Seven analyses of bone-black from sugar refineries. 

Page 72— Comparison of bone-ash, commercial bone-ash, pure ox bone-ash, 
horse shank bone-ash, ox bone-ash. 

Page 73 — A complete discussion of the phosphate deposits in the United 
States with statistics and tables on total production and individual 
production, market value, estimated life of, utilization, exports, devel- 
opment, Western deposits, and other interesting data. 

Page 74— Analyses of South Carolina phosphates. 

Page 74 — A description of how Florida phosphates are mined. Analyses of 
Florida phosphates. 

Page 75— Analyses of brown, blue and white rock. 

Page 75— Analyses of Canadian apatite. 

Page 76 — Composition of basic slag and comments on. 

Page 76 — List of phosphatic guano deposits, including those that have been 
and are being worked ; analyses of these guanos. 

Page 79— Influence of degree of fineness on value of phosphates, with 
experimental results. 

Page 83 — A complete description of the form of phosphoric acid in basic 
slag and its availability. 

Pao-e 83 — Amounts of acid to dissolve phosphates ; the reversion of phos- 
phoric acid. 

Page 85 —Classification of terms used for available and total phosphoric 
acid ; amount of available phosphoric acid contained in manufactured 
fertilizers. 

Page 87— Average composition of superphosphates and double superphos- 
phates. 

Page 88 —Amounts of phosphates used for manufacturing fertilizers. Phos- 
phoric acid removed by crops. 

Page 89— Experiments showing the fixation of phosphoric acid. Discus- 
sion on the absorption of phosphoric acid. 



notl;s 147 

Page 89 — Experiments showine the effect of phosphoric acid. 

Page 89 -Crop returns frotn phosphatic fertilizers, with and without lime 
on several crops ; summary of these results. 

Page 90— A full description of the potash mines and the several salts 
deposited. 

Page 91 -Composition of kainit and a more complete description of it. 

Page 91 — Composition of sylvinit and a more complete description of it. 

Page 91— Composition of nmriate of potash and a more complete descrip- 
tion of it. 

Page 92 — Composition of potassium sulphate and a more complete descrip- 
tion of it. 

Page 92— Composition of double sulphate of potash and magnesia. 

Page 93 — Composition of potash manure salts. 

Page 93 -Composition of potash — magnesium carbonate. 

Page 93 -Table of composition of Stassfurt potash salts. Production of 
crude and manufactured salts, and consumption of the same. 

Page 93 —Analyses of leached and unleached ashes from several sources ; 
amounts of ingredients in different kinds of wood. 

Page 94 — Discussion and analyses of tobacco stems, stalks and wastes. 

Page 94 — Composition of cotton-seed hull ashes and a discussion of this 
product. 

Page 94 Full discussion of the manufacture of this product. 

Page 94 — Composition of beet molasses ash and fertilizer by-products made 
from it. Wine residue fertilizers. Statistics giving actual potash ma- 
terials and actual potash contained in manufactured fertilizers. 
Amounts of potash removed by different farm crops. Crop producing 
value of different potash salts. 

Page 97 —Experiments and discussion showing the effect of potash on dif- 
ferent kinds of crops. 

Page 99 — Comments on seaweed and its preservation. Analyses of differ- 
ent varieties. Comments and analyses of seaweed ash. 

Page 99 — Analyses of different kinds of marl and comments on the benefit 
of this material. 

Page 99 Several analyses of peat and muck. Liquid and flower fertilizers. 

Page 100 — Analj'ses of commercial pulverized sheep manures. 

Page 100 -A full discussion of these fish wastes and analy.ses of the same. 

Page 100 — Analyses of human excreta and sewage sludge, together with a 
complete discussion of sewage and sewage sludge. 

Page loi— Aiial3-ses and discussion on all the ashes. 

Page 10 1 —Leather scrap ashes, ivory dust and spent hops are di.scussed. 

Page loi — Analyses of soot. 

Page 102 — A more complete description. 

Page 102 —Experiments with silicate of potash and a di.scussion of its value 
and output. 

Page 102 — Analyses and discussion of salt. 



148 FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER HINTS 

Page 103 — Full comment on sulphates of soda and magnesia. 

Page 104— Representation of the forms of lime, sources of carbonate of lime, 
and analyses of lime and limestone. 

Page 106— Experiments showing the effect of the form of lime on crop pro- 
duction, the fertility of the soil, and on soils rich in organic matter. 

Page 106— Amounts of lime removed by crops ; amount of lime in soils. 

Page 107— An extensive article on the acidity of upland soils, including 
observations on growing plants, effect of lime in conjunction with 
nitrate of soda and ammonium sulphate. 

Page 108— Analyses of gas lime. 

Page 108 — Analyses of gypsum ; effect of gypsum on clover ash and discus- 
sion. 

Page 109 — Fertility restored by some plants ; amount of nitrogen obtained 
from the air. 

Page 112 — Statistics given the cost of manufacture, cost of products, number 
of tons manufactured, consumption and distribution of fertilizer by 
states. 

Page 114 — Output of fertilizer factories, cost of nitrogen, of phosphoric acid, 
and of potash ; classification of commercial fertilizers. 

Page 116— Discussion of the requirements of fertilizer laws, comparison of 
the laws, model fertilizer law, comments on model law, tentative defi- 
nitions of fertilizers and of misbranding and adulteration. 

Page 117 — Converson factors. 

Page 118— A list of one maimfacturer's brands with simplified guarantees. 
Purity of raw materials as a basis of purchase. 

Page 125 — Commercial values of tankage and bone. Comments regarding 
valuations. Valuations show the cost of plant food. Objections to 
valuations. Points in favor of valuations. Valuations in other states. 
Chapter on high, medium and low grade fertilizers, including fillers, 
cost of different grades, the 100 per cent, of fertilizers and other inter- 
esting data. 

Page 128 — Amount of plant food purchased for I30 in factory and home 
mixed fertilizers. Selling prices and valuations. Analyses, cost, and 
valuations of home mixtures. 

Page 131 — A system of rebating when materials fail to reach the guarantee. 

Page 133— Home mixture formulas. How to determine the requirements of 
the soil. 

Page 135 — Number of brands sold in Georgia for several years. 

Page 136— Examples of different prices for grades of cotton-seed meal with 
comment. 

Page 137 — Fertilizer recipes or patent formulas with a discussion of the 
same. 

Page 137 — Table showing results on fertilizers kept in storage. Incompati- 
bles in fertilizer mixtures, showing materials that may and may not 
be mixed together. 



NOTES 149 

Page 142— Chapter giving the requirements of crops classified into staple 
and special crops ; small grains ; forage crops ; market garden and 
truck crops ; fruits ; nuts. Fertilizer formulas for the several crops 
grown in the United States. 

Appendix includes a list of the Experiment Stations ; how to collect 
an exhibit of fertilizer materials ; fertilizer constituents in feed stuffs ; 
the number of pounds of a fertilizer required to furnish one pound of 
any element when the percentage of that element present in the 
fertilizer is known. 



INDEX 



Acid phospliale, 80; ccilor of, ii~ : 

manufacture of, 80. 
Acidity of soils, 104; how to lind 

out when soils are acid, 105. 
Acids and bases, y. 
Aerol)ic fermentation, 41. 
Agricuhural salt, 102. 
As^ricultural vakies of fertiUzers, i-'i. 
Alumimnn, 5. 
Ammonium chloride, 103. 
Ammonium nitrate, 102. 
Ammonium sulphate, composition and 

availability of, 57 ; manufacture 

of, 57- 

Anaerobic fermentation, 42. 

Apatite. Canadian. 75. 

Ashes, see wood ashes, coal ashes, 
etc. 

Ash in plants, 10, 11, 12. 

Azotin, 54. 

Bacteria, number in the soil. 22. 

luisic slag', 73 ; phosphate, 82. 

L5at guano, 56. 

ISedding- for litter, jf) : absorptive 
power of, 36; kind and amount 
used, 36. 

Beet molasses ash. 04. 

Beet refuse, 6r. 

Blood, dried, 52. 

Bone-ash, 72. 

Bone-black, 7r. 

Bone-dust, 71. 

Bone-meal, raw. 70 : steamed. 70. 

Bone phosphates. 77. 

Bone tankage. 7^. 

Bones, 70; mechanical composition 
of, 71. 

Brand and trade names of fertiliz- 
ers, 134- 

Brick kiln ashes, 10 r. 

Calciiun. 4: stilphale of, 81, 108. 
1 1 



Calcium cyanamid, 59; fertilizing val- 
ue of. 59; properties of, 59. 

Calcium nitrate, 59. 

Calculation of amouiUs from known 
percentages, 132. 

Calculation of percentages from 
known amounts, 131. 

Capillary water, 20; aiuounls of held 
by soils, 21 ; how to increase up- 
ward movement of. 21 ; how to 
prevent loss of. 21. 

Carbon. 3. 

Carbonate of lime, 104, 

Carbonate of potash, 94. 

Carbonic acid, 104. 

Castor pomace, 52. 

Chemical analyses, interpretation of, 
IT9; examples of, 119, 120, 121. 

Chemical elements, i 

Chemical symbols, i. 

Chlorine, 5. 

Coal ashes, 100. 

Commercial fertilizers, chapter on, 
112; basis of purchase, 114; 
causes for large consumption, 
112; fertilizing materials used 
by manufacturers, 114; how to 
lessen use of, 113: ton basis, 115; 
unit system, 114. 

Commercial values, 122: how to cal- 
culate. 124. 

Compost, 98. 

Corn cob ashes. 101. 

Cotton-seed, yield of product > from. 
50. 

Cotton-seed hull ashe^. 94. 

Cotton-seed meal. 50: composition of. 
50; value of, 50. 

Cow manure, ^y ; analysis of, 3(). 

I )cin'tril"!cation. 22. 

1 )i\(Tsi("ication of crops, 2(). 



152 



INDEX 



Double sulphate of potash and mag- 
nesia, 92. 

Double superphosphate, 86. 

Drainage, 20; losses from, 26. 

Dry matter, composition of in plants, 
8. 

Elements sometimes lacking in the 
soil^ 16; obtained from air and 
water, 16; present usually in 
sufficient amounts, 16. 

Erosion, 25 ; ways to check, 25. 

Essential elements, 16; replacing of, 

17- 

Fallowing, 26. 

Farm manures, chapter on, 35 ; 
amount to apply, 46; analyses of, 
39; bacteriological effect of, 
46; benefits grass land, 45: care, 
preservation and use of. 40: 
composition of covered and un- 
covered, 44 ; composition of fresh 
and ro'tted, 43 : composting, 42 ; 
conditions affecting value of, 35; 
effect of fresh and exposed man- 
ure on crop production, 46; effect 
of kind and amount of bedding- 
used on value of. 36; effect of 
on mangolds with other ferti- 
lizers, 45; effect of leaching on, 
40 ; effect of nature and amount 
of feed on, 39: fermentations in. 
41 ; how to apply, 47 ; how to 
calculate amount produced, 39 ; 
improves the texture of soil, 
45 ; influence of age of animal 
on value of, 35 ; influence of 
use of animal on value of, 35 ; 
keep manure moist, 42 ; kinds of 
manure, 35 ; lasting effect of, 40 ; 
physical effects of, 44; preserva- 
tives, 44 ; prevents mechanical 
loss by winds, 45 ; produces a 
better moisture condition, 45 ; 
store under cover, 43 : time to 
apply, 46; waste of, 40. 



Feather waste, 61. 

Fertilizers, chapter on, 112; a few 
remarks about, 134; agricultural 
values of, 121 ; amount to use, 
142; brand and trade names of, 
134; calculations on, 131, 132; 
commercial values of, 122 ; de- 
terioration of on storage, 137 ; 
elements required for crops, 
table of. 143 ; how applied, 139 ; 
how to purchase, 136; is it profit- 
able to use, 141 ; time to apply, 
137; trade values of, 123: valua- 
tion of, chapter on, 119. 

Fertilizer laws, 115. 

Fertilizer materials, low grade, value 
of, 64; basis of purchase, 114: 
how to mix it at home, 130: how 
to purchase. 130; used by manu- 
facturers, 114. 

Filler, 128. 

Fish, dry ground, 54, 72. 

Fish scrap, fresh, 100. 

Formulas for crops, 143. 

Garbage tankage, 63. 

Gas lime, 107. 

Green manures, 108 ; classes of, 108 ; 
deep rooted plants valuable, in ; 
leguminous crops preferable for. 
109; the best time to grow, no; 
the best time to plow under, 109. 

Guanos, how deposited, 55; nitrog- 
enous, 55 ; phosphatic, 76. 

Guarantee of fertilizers, 116, 117, 118; 
examples of, 116; fertilizers 
should reach their guarantees, 
136; interpretation of, 116; mean- 
of, 116; study the guarantee, 136. 

Gypsum, 81, 108. 

Hair and fur waste, 61. 

Hen manure, 39; analysis of, 39. 

Hog manure, 38; analysis of, 39. 



INDEX 



153 



Jlome mixtures, chapter on, 126; 
calculations of percentages and 
amounts in fertilizers, 131, 132; 
defmitions, 126; does away with 
the purchase of unnecessary con- 
stituents, 128; manufacturers al- 
low credit. 127 ; manufacturers 
claims, 126; mechanical condi- 
tion of factory and home mixed 
fertilizers, 127; mixed fertiliz- 
ers compounded for the crop, 
127; mixed fertilizers more easi- 
ly purchased, 127 ; plant food 
obtained at a lower price, 127 ; 
reasons for and against the use 
of, 126. 

Horn and hoof meal, steamed, 54; 
untreated, 61. 

Horse manure, 37 ; analysis of, 39. 

Humus, 13. 

Hydrochloric acid, i. 

Hydrogen, i. 

Hygroscopic moisture, 6. 

Inorganic matter, 13. 

Iron, 4. 

Iron sulphate, 102. 

Kainit, 91. 

King crab, 55. 

Leather meal : dissolved. 60 ; raw, 
60; treated, 60. 

Leaves for bedding, 36. 

Lime, 104; amount to apply, 106; 
carbonate of, 104; decreases 
many fungus diseases, 107 ; form 
to use, 105: forms of, 104; how 
to find out when soils need lime, 
104; how to apply, 105; mechani- 
cal action of, 107 ; phosphates 
of, 81. 

Lime-kiln ashes. 100. 

Linseed meal, old and new process. 

51- 
Lobster shells, 100. 

Magnesium, 5 ; carbonate of, 103 ; sul- 
phate of. 102. 



Manganese, 5; salts of, 103. 

Manures, pulverized, 100 ; see farm 
manure. 

Marl, 99. 

Meat meal, 54. 

Miscellaneous fertilizer materials, 
chapter on, 98. 

Mora meal, 61. 

Muck, 99. 

Muriate of potash, 91. 

iMussels, 100. 

Xitrate of soda, 58 : composition and 
properties of. 58. 

Nitrification, 22. 

Nitrogen, 2; amounts for crops, ta- 
ble of, 143 ; excessive nitrogen in- 
vites disease, 68 ; for large crops 
and building up the soil, 66; for 
soils well supplied and long grow- 
ing crops, 66; forms of, 48; 
functions of, 67; how lost front 
the soil, 25, 26, 27 ; organisms 
that gather, 23 ; utilization of 
from air, 58. 

Nitrogenous materials, high grade, 
chapter on, 48 ; low grade, chap- 
ter on, 60 ; availability of, 63 ; 
field experiments with, 63 ; for 
immediate results, 65 ; kinds to 
use, 65 ; use of low grade in- 
creasing, 64; value of low grade, 
64. 

Odorless phosphate, see basic slag. 

One crop farming, effect on fertili- 
ty. 28. 

Organic matter, 13. 

Organic nitrogen. 48, 49. 

Oxygen. 2. 

Peat. 99 ; for bedding, 36 ; absorption 
of. S7 ; dried. 63. 

Phosphates, chapter on, 70 ; availa- 
bility of, 78; available deposits 
of, 73 ; classification of, 77 ; how 
they occur, 70 ; influence of soil 
on availability of, 78; Florida 



154 



INDEX 



phosphates, 74 ; form to use, 78 ; 
kind to use, 89 ; mineral, "/Z ; or- 
ganic, 70; South Carolina phos- 
phates, "/Z ; Tennessee phosphates, 

74- 

Phosphoric acid, 80; amount in soils, 
88; available, 84; difference be- 
tween phosphates and superphos- 
phates, 83 ; difference of the 
forms of in superphosphates, 85 ; 
fixation of, 88 ; functions of, 89 ; 
insoluble, 81; loss of, 28; re- 
verted, 82; soluble, 81; value of 
reverted, 83. 

Phosphorus, 4; amount for crops, 

143- 

Physiological water, 6. 

Plant food, amount available in soils, 
15; amount remox-ed !)y crops, 
14. 

Plants, acids and bases in, 9 ; 
amounts of water used by, 7 : 
ash of young and mature, 12; 
ash in, 10. 11, 12; composition 
of, 6; distribution of ash in, 12: 
dry matter of, 8; elements that 
make up, 10; food of, 6; how 
benefited by open soils, 19 ; how 
they feed, 5 ; must have room, 
20; occurrence of mineral ele- 
ments in, 12 ; require oxygen, 
20; salts in, 10: variation of ash 
in, 10; variation of water in, 7; 
water in young and mature, 8 : 

Potash, in soils, 94 ; chloride of, 91 ; 
effects maturity, 96; effects the 
leaves, 96; favors seed and straw 
formation, 96; fixation of, 95: 
forms of, 95 ; from organic 
sources, 93; functions of, 96: 
helps to neutralize plant acids, 
97 ; loss of, 28 ; sometimes checks 
insect pests and plant diseases, 
97; sulphate of, 91. 

Potash fertilizers, chapter on, 90. 



Potash-magnesia carbonate, 93. 

Potash manure salts, 92. 

Potash salts, 90. 

Potassium, 3 ; amounts for crops, 143. 

Potassium nitrate, 102. 

Powder waste, 102. 

Preservatives for farm manures, 44. 

Pulverized manures, 100. 

Quick-lime, 104. 

Rice hull ashes, loi. 

Rock phosphates, ~~. 

Rodunda phosphate, 75. 

Rotations, advantages of. 30; con- 
serves moisture, 34 ; furnishes a 
regular income, 2,2 : furnishes 
feed for live-stock, 2)i ', helps 
check insect and plant diseases, 
31 ; helps distribute farm labor, 
31; keeps down weeds, 30; leg- 
umes profitable in, 31 ; prevents 
losses of fertility, 2,7) '• regulates 
humus supply, 34 ; saves ferti- 
lizer expenditure, 34 ; utilization 
of deep and shallow rooted 
plants, },2> ' utilizes plant food 
more evenly, z;^. 

.Salt, common, 102. 

Salts in plants, 10. 

.Sawdust and shavings for bedding. 
36 : absorptive power of sawdust, 
37- 

.Scutch, 61. 

.Seaweed, 99. 

Sewage, 100. 

Sewage sludge, 100. 

.Sheep manure, 38 ; analysis of, 30. 

.Shoddies, etc., 62. 

Shrimp waste, 100. 

Silicate of potash, 102. 

.Silicon, 4. 

Slaked lime, 104. 

Sodium, 5; chloride of, 102: suipbalc 
of, 102. 

.Soil fertility, chapter on, 13 ; factors 
influencing, 13; loss by one crop 



IXDliX 



155 



laniiing, 28; Id.ss by system ul 
farming, 34; maintaining, chap- 
ter on, 25. 

Soil grains, surface area of, ly. 

vSoils, biological condition of, Ji ; 
cracking of, ly: inoculation of, 
23; lumpy, ](j: mechanical com- 
position of, 18; plant food sup- 
ply of, 14; puddling of, 19; phy- 
sical condition of, 18; tempera- 
ture of, ]8; thawing and freez- 
ing of, 10. 

Soot, 101. 

vStraw as bedding, 3(1 ; abs(ir]iti\e 
power of, 37. 

Street sweepings, 10 1. 

Sulphate of potash, 91. 

Sulphur, 4. 

vSuIphuric acid, 80: manufacture of, 
80. 

Superphosphates, chapter on, 80 ; fav- 
oritism for bone superphosphates, 
86; how to make at home, 88: 
manufacture of. 80; names ap- 
plied to. 84 : no free acid in, 87 : 



the ditlerence between pliusphates 
and superphosphates, 83; the dif- 
ference of the forms of phos- 
phoric acid in, 81, 8j, 83. 85. 

vSylvinit. yi. 

T''mkage, 53; grades of, 53; \aria- 
ti(in in, 53. 

'IMmmas phosphate powder, see basic 
slag. 

Tobacco stems and stalks, y4. 

Trade values of fertilizers, 123; dis- 
cussion of table of. 124: how 
iilitained, 124. 

Tubercles, 3. 

Unit system of purciiase of fertiliz- 
ers, 114. 

X'aluation of fertilizers, chapter on, 
119. 

\ alucs, agricultural and connuerciai. 
121, 122 ; trade, 123. 

Water in plants, (S, 7. 8. 

Wood ashes, 93; value of, 93. 

Wood waste, shoddies, etc., 62 : 
treated. 62. 



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